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Nursing- Biosciences and Pharmacology > Oncology and haematology > Flashcards

Oncology and haematology Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe how genetic mutations can cause alterations in cell division

A
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2
Q

What is a point mutation?

A

-involves a change in a single base along the base sequence of a particular gene
-a point mutation can also be a deletion or addition, where one or more bases are deleted or added

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3
Q

What is gene amplification and what effect does it have/ cancers that is causes?

A

-where a single gene is amplified so there are more copies then there should be in a chromosome
-this means the protein is over expressed and changes the behaviour of the cell
-can be the cause of breast and stomach cancer

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4
Q

What is chromothripsis?

A

-one massive genomic rearrangement during a single catastrophic event in the cells history

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5
Q

Describe the difference between a benign tumour and a malignant tumour

A

Benign:
-grow slowly
-encapsulated, not invasive
-tissue resembles parent tissue
-remains localised, doesn’t metastasise

Malignant:
-grows rapidly
-irregular in shape and invades local structures and tissues
-tissue is poorly differentiated and does not resemble parent tissue
-if left untreated the malignant tumour is likely to spread to distant areas of the body (via the blood and lymph systems)

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6
Q

What is a ‘well differentiated’ tumour equivalent to in grades

A

Grade 1
resembles parent cell, low grade

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7
Q

What is a ‘moderately differentiated’ tumour equivalent to in grades

A

Grade 2
some similarities to parent cell

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8
Q

What is a ‘poorly differentiated’ tumour equivalent to in grades

A

Grade 3
very immature, little resemblance to parent cell

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9
Q

What is a ‘undifferentiated’ tumour equivalent to in grades

A

Grade 4
no resemblance to original tissue, high grade

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10
Q

What does the T in the TNM classification system represent?

A

T= size of tumour
-1 being small
-4 being large

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11
Q

What does the N in the TNM classification system represent?

A

N= whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes
-0 being no lymph nodes infected
-3 being lots of lymph nodes infected

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12
Q

What does the M in the TNM classification system represent?

A

M= whether the cancer has spread to a different part of the body (metastatic)
-0 meaning cancer hasn’t spread
-1 meaning cancer has spread

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12
Q

What does each stage of the cell cycle do?

A

-growth phase 1= growth, produces double organelles
-synthesis= DNA replication
-growth phase 2= protein synthesis
G0= resting

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13
Q

How does a benign tumour develop into a malignant tumour?

A

-in normal tissues, the rate of new cell growth and old cell death are kept in balance
-in cancer, this balance is disrupted, resulting from uncontrolled cell growth or loss of cell’s ability to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death)
-the tumour becomes malignant when the cells are no longer encapsulated and cell growth becomes rapid

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14
Q

List some carcinogenetic agents that can cause DNA to mutate, but that can be prevented.

A

-tobacco
-diet
-obesity
-ultra violet radiation
-viruses
-bacteria

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15
Q

List some carcinogenetic agents that can cause DNA to mutate, but are not so easy to change

A

-ionising radiation
-asbestos exposure
-inflammation
-birth weight
-parasites
-pollution
-industrial processes and chemicals
-cytotoxic agents
-sex hormones

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16
Q

What is carcinogenesis?

A

the initiation of cancer formation

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17
Q

What is angiogenesis?

A

The development of new blood vessels

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18
Q

What is autonomy?

A

A cell that works independently from other cells (such as a cancer cell)

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19
Q

What is a carcinogen?

A

A substance

20
Q

What is carcinoma?

A

A substance, organism or agent capable of causing cancer

21
Q

What is chemotherapy?

A

A treatment that kills cancer by stopping the DNA, RNA and protein synthesis, which prevents the uncontrolled cell division occurring
-this includes a mix of medications: alkylating agent, antimetabolite, cytotoxic agent, steroids, and anti-emetics

22
Q

What is differentiation?

A

When cells become specialised to carry out a specific function

23
Q

What is lymphoma?

A

A type of cancer that develops in the white blood cells of the lymphatic system which is part of the immune system

24
Q

What is metastases?

A

-Cancer cells spread from the primary site to distant cites
-common sites for the cancer to spread to are the liver, lungs, brain, adrenal, bone marrow

25
Q

What is neoplasm?

A

A new and abnormal growth of tissue in a part of the body especially as a characteristic of cancer

26
Q

What is a proto-oncogene?

A

-Normal genes which affect normal cell growth and proliferation but also have the potential to contribute to cancer development if their expression is altered

-they turn the cell on to divide (car accelerator)

-growth factors, receptors, signalling enzymes, transcription factors

27
Q

What is proliferation?

A

An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division.

28
Q

What is sarcoma?

A

A tumour that arises in connective tissue

29
Q

What is silencing?

A

A type of epigenetic modification that regulates gene expression in a cell to prevent the expression of a specific gene

30
Q

What is a stem cell?

A

The basic cells that can reproduce and then develop into different types of specialist cells

31
Q

What is transformation?

A

-a process that involves inserting genes into an organism to alter its traits.
-this is also known as genetic engineering

32
Q

What is a tumour marker?

A

Substances that might be raised if there is a cancer, usually proteins.

33
Q

What is a tumour suppression gene?

A

-a family of normal genes that instruct cells to produce proteins that restrain cell growth and division

-they turn cell division off, loss of these proteins allow a cell to grow in an uncontrolled fashion

-like a break pedal that doesn’t work

34
Q

What is a mutation?

A

a specific change in the gene, which can be random and cumulatively may contribute to the development of a cancer. A cancer needs 5-7 mutations in genes before it can develop

35
Q

What is a wilm’s tumour?

A

-a type of kidney tumour
-composed of three cellular types: stromal, epithelial and blastemic
-can either be sporadic or inherited

35
Q

What is leukaemia?

A

A type of blood cancer that affects blood cells in your bone marrow

35
Q

What are the 5 stages of a wilms tumour?

A

-stage 1=tumour limited to the kidney, removable via surgery

-stage 2= tumour extends beyond kidney into the vessels in the renal sinus, removable via surgery

-stage 3= residual tumour is only in abdomen

-stage 4= metastases to lung, liver, brain, bone

-stage 5= bilateral disease, each kidney needs to be staged

36
Q

How can leukaemia diagnosed?

A

by analysis of peripheral blood smears and bone marrow aspirations

36
Q

What are the 4 main types of leukaemia?

A

(ALL) Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia

(AML) Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia

(CLL) Chronic Lymphoblastic Leukaemia

(CML) Chronic Myelogenous Leukaemia

37
Q

What are the major differences between acute and chronic leukaemia?

A

-acute are typically found more in children (ALL most common)
-acute has an abrupt onset and more rapid progression
-acute consists of less mature blast cells in the blood and bone

-chronic more often in adults (CLL most common)
-chronic has a subtle onset and progresses more slowly
-chronic consist of more differentiated cancer cells

38
Q

What is sickle cell anaemia?

A

an autosomal recessive genetic condition caused by a mutation of mRNA

39
Q

How does sickle cell anaemia affect haemoglobin and the blood?

A

sickle haemoglobin doesn’t absorb as much oxygen therefore changes its shape, which can stick together and block blood vessels

40
Q

What is a sickle cell crisis?

A

-where parts of the body don’t receive enough blood supply, therefore they become painful
-a sickle cell crisis can last longer then a few days depending on where it is, usually in joints and bones, but this can be very dangerous if in the chest

41
Q

What are the common triggers for a sickle cell crisis?

A

-dehydration
-infection
-stress
-over exhaustion

41
Q

How is a sickle cell crisis managed?

A

-antibiotics and painkillers are used to manage sickle cell e.g penicillin and folic acid to prevent infection (spleen overworked and doesn’t fight infections well)
-blood transfusions may also be conducted however there is risk of iron overload and antibodies against future blood transfusions

42
Q

What is intravascular haemolysis?

A

red blood cells are broken down much faster then normal due to a weakened cell membrane

43
Q
A

Nursing- Biosciences and Pharmacology (17 decks)

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