Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Internal Medicine > OHCEPS - Cardiovascular System > Flashcards

OHCEPS - Cardiovascular System Flashcards

1
Q

MC and most important CV symptom?

A

Chest pain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

History for chest pain?

A

Same as for any other pain:

  1. Nature
  2. Site
  3. Any radiation
  4. Severity (1-10)
  5. Mode and rate of onset - What was the patient doing at the time?
  6. Duration (if now resolved)
  7. Exacerbating/Relieving factors
  8. Associated symptoms
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

True angina - features?

A
  1. Retrosternal
  2. “Crushing”, “Heaviness”,”like a tigh band”.
  3. Worse with physical or emotional exertion, cold weather and after eating.
  4. Relieved by rest and nitrate spray (within a couple of minutes)
  5. Not affected by respiration or movements.
  6. Sometimes associated with breathlessness
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

In patients with known angina - important?

A

A change in the nature of the symptom is important. How much exercise they can do before feeling the discomofort and whether this has changed.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Pain of MI?

A

Similar to angina but much more severe, persistent (Despite GTN spray) - associated with nausea, sweating, and vomiting.
Patients also, describe a feature of impending doom or death - “angor animi”.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

MCCs of pericarditis?

A
  1. Viral/Bacterial infections
  2. MI
  3. Uremia
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Pericarditis pain - features?

A
  1. Constant retrosternal “soreness”.
  2. Worse on inspiration (pleuritic).
  3. Relieved slightly by sitting forwards.
  4. Not related to movement or exertion.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Often mistaken for MI or angina?

A

Esophageal spasm.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Esophageal spasm - Features of pain?

A
  1. Severe, retrosternal burning pain.
  2. Onset after eating or drinking.
  3. May be associated with dysphagia
  4. May have a history of dyspepsia
  5. May be relieved by GTN as this is a smooth muscle relaxant (hence the confusion with angina) but GTN will take up to 20min to relieve this pain whereas angina is relieved within a few minutes.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

GERD pain?

A
  1. Retrosternal, burning pain.

2. Relieved by antacids, onset after eating.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Aortic dissection - pain?

A
  1. Severe tearing pain.
  2. Felt posteriorly - classically between the shoulderblades.
  3. Persistent, most severe at onset.
  4. Patient is usually hypertensive and “marfanoid”.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Aortic dissection mistaken for MI - Problem?

A

Thrombolysis here may prove fatal.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Pleuritic (respiratory) pain - causes?

A
  1. Pulmonary embolus

2. Pneumothorax

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Pleuritic pain - features?

A
  1. Sharp pain, worse on inspiration and coughing.
  2. Not central - may be localized to one side of the chest.
  3. No radiation
  4. No relief from GTN
  5. Associated with breathlessness, cyanosis etc.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Musculoskeletal chest pain - caused?

A

Injury
Trauma
Chondritis etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Musculoskeletal chest pain - features?

A
  1. Localized to a spot.
  2. Worsened by movement and respiration.
  3. May be tender to palpation.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Tietze’s syndrome?

A

Costochondritis - inflammation of the costal cartilages at ribs 2,3,4.
Will be associated with tender swelling over the costo-sternal joints.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

New York Heart Association classification of breathlessness?

A

I - nil at rest, some on vigorous exercise.
II - nil at rest, breathless on moderate exercise.
III - mild breathlessness at rest, worse on mild exertion.
IV - significant breathlessness at rest and worse on even slight exertion (patient is often bed-bound).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What to ask in order to quantify breathlessness?

A
  1. How far can they walk on the flat before they have to stop? (“march tolerance”)
  2. What about stairs and hills? Can they make it up a flight?
  3. Are they sure that they stop due to breathlessness or is it some other reason (arthritic knees for example)?
  4. Has the patient had to curtail their normal activities in any way?
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Orthopnea?

A

Breathlessness when lying flat.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Orthopnea - will patient tell you?

A

NO - should be asked.

How many pillows to sleep?

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

PND?

A

Episodes of breathlessness occuring at night - usually thought to be due to pulmonary edema.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

PND - will the patient tell?

A

NO - Should be asked.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

PND - what happens?

A

Sufferers will experience waking in the night spluttering and coughing - they find they have to sit up or stand and many go to the window for “fresh air” in an attempt to regain their normal breathing.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

PND - questions?

A
  1. Do they wake up in the night coughing and trying to catch their breath?
  2. If so, glean as much detail as you can - including how often and how badly the symptom is disturbing the patient’s sleep cycle.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Cough in pulmonary edema?

A

Productive - frothy white sputum - may be flecked with blood (pink) due to ruptured bronchial vessels, but this is not usually a worrying sign in itself.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Questions regarding ankle edema?

A
  1. How long?
  2. Worse any particular time of day? (cardiac edema worse toward the evening, resolves overnight)
  3. Exactly, how extensive is the swelling?
  4. Is there evidence of abdominal swelling and ascites?
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Palpitations?

A

Awareness of one’s own heart beat.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Questions for palpitations - difficult topic - difficult to clarify exact nature.

A
  1. When did the sensation start/stop?
  2. How long does it last?
  3. Did it come on suddenly or gradually?
  4. Did the patient blackout? If so, for how long?
  5. Was the heart beat felt as fast, slow, or some other pattern?
  6. Was it regular or irregular? - Ask to tap out on their knee what felt.
  7. What was the patient doing when palpitations started?
  8. Any relationship to eating or drinking? (tea, coffe, wine, chocolate?)
  9. Could this be from medication?
  10. Has this ever happened before? If so, what were the circumstances?
  11. Any associated symptoms? (chest pain, shortness of breath, syncope, nausea, dizziness)
  12. Did the patient stop their activities or lie down?
  13. Was the patient able to stop palpitations somehow?
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Syncope?

A

Faint or swoon.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Pre-syncope?

A

The feeling that the patient is about to faint.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Questions about syncope?

A
  1. Gradual/sudden onset?
  2. How long was the loss of consciousness?
  3. What was the patient doing when it happened (standing, urinating, coughing)?
  4. Were there any preceding or associated symptoms such as chest pain, palpitations, nausea, sweating?
  5. Any medication relationship? (antihypertensives, GTN)
  6. When patient came round, were there any other symptoms remaining?
  7. Was there any tongue-biting or urinary or fecal incontinence?
  8. Was there any motor activity during the episode?
  9. How long did it take for the patient to feel “back to normal”?
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

True claudication - what does patient tell?

A
  1. Feels like a tight ‘cramp’ in the muscle.
  2. Usually calf, thigh, buttock, and foot.
  3. ONLY in exercise.
  4. Disappears at rest.
  5. May also be numbness or pins-and-needles on the skin of the foot (blood is diverted from the skin to the ischemic muscle).
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Claudication - quantify?

A

If possible, the claudication “distance” - for judging the severity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

If very severe leg ischemia (rest pain), what will some patient do to relieve pain at night?

A

Hang the affected leg off the side of the bed.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Cardiac risk factors?

A
  1. Age
  2. Gender
  3. Obesity
  4. Smoking - don’t be caught out by the ‘ex-smoker’ that gave up yesterday!
  5. HTN - When it was diagnosed, how treated, monitored?
  6. HyperCH - Same.
  7. Diabetes - what type? diagnosed? treated? monitored? usual glucose readings?
  8. FHx - 1st degree relatives who had CV events before 60.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

PMH - Cardiac problems?

A

Ask especially about:

  1. Angina - If they have GTN spray how often they need to use it and whether this has changed significantly recently.
  2. MI - when? How treated?
  3. Ischemic Heart disease? - diagnosed? Any angiograms? Other investigations?
  4. Cardiac surgery? - bypass? How many arteries?
  5. AF or other cardiac rhythm disturbance - what treatmet? On warfarin?
  6. RF
  7. Endocarditis
  8. Thyroid disease
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Framework for the cardiovascular examination?

A
  1. General inspection
  2. Hands
  3. Radial pulse
  4. Brachial pulse
  5. Blood pressure
  6. Face
  7. Eyes
  8. Tongue
  9. Carotid pulse
  10. Jugular venous pressure and pulse waveform
  11. Inspection of precordium
  12. Palpation of the precordium
  13. Auscultation of precordium
  14. Auscultation of neck
  15. Dynamic manoeuvres (if appropriate)
  16. Lung bases
  17. Abdomen
  18. Peripheral pulses (lower limbs)
  19. Edema
  20. Peripheral veins
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Positioning of the cardiac patient for examination.

A

Leaning back to 45 degrees supported by pillows.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What must be done if BP standing and seated is intended to be measured?

A

Make patient stand for 3 min before measuring - it may be wise to do this at the beginning of the examination.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

General inspection of cardiac patient.

A
  1. Do they look ill? If so, in which way?
  2. Are they short of breath at rest?
  3. Is there any cyanosis
  4. What is their nutritional state?
    - Are they overweight?
    - Are they cachectic?
  5. Other syndrome: Marfan, Turner, Down?
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Cardiac patient - exam of the hand.

A
  1. Temperature - may be cold in CHF.
  2. Sweat
  3. State of nails - blue discoloration if peripheral blood flow is poor/ splinter hemorrhages (small streak-like bleeds in the nail bed) - especially in bacterial endocarditis, but may also be seen in RA, vasculitis, trauma, sepsis from any source.
  4. Finger clubbing - IE, cyanotic CHD.
  5. Xanthomata - often on tendons at the wrist.
  6. Osler’s nodes - rare manifestation in IE - Red, tender nodules on the finger pulp or thenar eminence.
  7. Janeway lesions - non-tender macular-papular erythematous lesions seen on the palm or finger pulps as a rare feature of bacterial endocarditis.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

How many rhythm patterns are there for the pulse?

A
  1. Regular
  2. Irregularly irregular
  3. Regularly irregular
  4. Regular with ectopics
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Regular pulse increase or decrease with inspiration?

A

Decrease.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Regular pulse increase or decrease with expiration?

A

Increase.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Example of irregularly irregular pulse?

A

A-fib

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Example of regularly irregular pulse?

A
  1. Pulsus bigeminus –> regular ectopic beats resulting in alternating brief gaps + long gaps between pulses.
  2. In Wenkenbach’s phenomenon –> Incr. time between each pulse until one is missed and then the cycle repeats.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Chracter/waveform of pulse - Aortic stenosis?

A

Slow rising pulse, maybe with a palpable shudder - sometimes called “anacrotic” or a “plateau” phase.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Character/Waveform of pulse - Aortic regurgitation?

A

A collapsing pulse which feels as those it suddenly hits your fingers and falls away just as quickly - “Waterhammer” pulse.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Pulsus bisferiens?

A

Waveform with 2 peaks, found where aortic stenosis and regurgitation co-exist.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

HCM pulse?

A

May feel normal at first but peters out quickly - often described as jerky.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Pulsus alternans?

A

An alternating strong and weak pulsation - synonymous with severely impaired left ventricle in a failing heart.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Pulsus paradoxus?

A

Pulse is weaker during inspiration.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Causes of pulsus paradoxus?

A
  1. Cardiac tamponade
  2. Status asthmaticus
  3. Constrictive pericarditis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Radio-radial pulse delay?

A

Pulses should occur simultaneously - pathology include:

  1. Aneurysm of the aortic arch
  2. Subclavian artery stenosis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Radio-femoral pulse delay?

A

If exist –> aortic coarctation (radial and femoral of the SAME side).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

CV exam - face:

A

Eyes - Mouth - Neck.
Be sure to ask:
1. Look up –> conjunctiva.
2. “Open wide” –> inside mouth and tongue.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

CV exam –> especially look for:

A
  1. Jaundice
  2. Anemia
  3. Xanthelasma
  4. Corneal arctus
  5. Mitral facies
  6. Cyanosis
  7. High arched palate
  8. Dental hygiene
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Corneal arcus??

A

Yellow ring seen overlying the iris - significant in patients <40 but not in older persons.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

High arched palate suggests?

A

Marfan

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Centre of the RA in relationship to the sternal angle?

A

5cm below.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Normal JVP?

A

3cm above the sternal angle (8cm of blood).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Standard position for JVP measurement?

A

Tilted at 45.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Features of jugular pulsation?

A
  1. 2 peaks (in sinus rhythm)
  2. Impalpable
  3. Obliterated by pressure
  4. Moves with respiration
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

Carotid pulsation - features?

A
  1. 1 peak
  2. Palpable
  3. Hard to obliterate
  4. Little movement by respiration
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

Hepatojugular reflex?

A
  1. Watch the neck pulsation
  2. Exert pressure over the liver with the flat of your right hand.
    JVP should RISE approx. 2cm, the carotid pulse will not.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Character of the jugular venous pulsation?

A

Jugular pulsation has 2 main peaks –> establish the timing of the peaks in the cardiac cycle by palpating the carotid pulse at the SAME time.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Key features of jugular venous pulsation?

A
  1. a wave –> atrial contraction.
  2. c point –> slight A-V-ring bulge during ventric. contraction.
  3. x decent –> atrial relaxation.
  4. v wave –> tricuspid closure + atrial filling.
  5. y decent –> ventricular filling as tricuspid opens.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

a wave - when?

A

Seen JUST BEFORE the carotid pulse.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

Raised JVP - means?

A
  1. RVF
  2. Tricuspid stenosis
  3. Tricuspid regurgitation
  4. SVC obstruction
  5. Pulm. embolus
  6. Fluid overload
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Large a waves - means?

A

Hypertrophied RA:

  1. Pulm. HTN
  2. Pulm. stenosis
  3. Tricuspid stenosis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

Absent a wave - means?

A

A-fib

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

Cannon a waves - means?

A

Large, irregular waves caused by contraction of the atrium against a closed tricuspid valve –> Seen in COMPLETE HEART BLOCK.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

Large v waves - means?

A

Regurgitation of blood through an incompetent TV.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

Sharp y decent - means?

A

Constrictive pericarditis.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

Sharp x decent - means?

A

Cardiac tamponade

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

JVP will decrease or increase during inspiration in the normal state?

A

Decrease.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

Kussmaul’s sign?

A

JVP RISES during inspiration in the presence of:

  1. Pericardial constriction
  2. RV infarction
  3. Cardiac tamponade - rarely
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

Inspection of the precordium?

A
  1. Scars
  2. Any abnormal chest shape or movements
  3. Pacemaker or implantable defibrillator
  4. Any visible pulsations
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

Scars on the precordium?

A
  1. Sternal split –> CABG
  2. Left lateral thoracotomy may be evidence of previous closed mitral valvotomy.
  3. Resection of coarctation
  4. Ligation of PDA
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

General palpation of the precordium?

A
  1. Explain what you doing - particularly to female patients.
  2. Place the flat of your right hand on the chest wall - to the left/right of the sternum - Any pulsations?
  3. “Heave” - this is sustained, thrusting pulsation usually felt at the left sternal edge indicating RV enlargement.
  4. “Thrill” - Palpable murmur - severe valvular disease.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

Palpating the apex beat?

A

Usually at the 5th intercostal space in the mid-clavicular line.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

Palpation of the precorium - Findings?

A
  1. Abnormal position of the apex beat - usually more lateral than expected.
  2. No apex beat felt - usually caused by heavy padding with fat or internal padding with an over-inflated emphysematous lung.
  3. Sometimes can be felt by asking the patient to lean forwards or laterally.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

Character of the apex beat?

A
  1. Stronger, more forceful
  2. Sustained
  3. Double impulse
  4. Tapping
  5. Diffuse
  6. Impalpable
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

Stronger, more forceful apex beat?

A

Hyperdynamic circulation - sepsis, anemia.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

Sustained apex beat?

A
  1. LVH
  2. AV stenosis
  3. HCM
  4. Hyperkinesia
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

Double impulse (apex beat)?

A

Palpable atrial systole - characteristic of HCM.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

Tapping apex beat?

A

Description given to a palpable S1 in SEVERE MITRAL STENOSIS.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

Diffuse apex beat?

A

Poorly localized beat caused by LV aneurysm.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

Impalpable apex beat?

A
  1. Emphysema
  2. Obesity
  3. Pericardial effusion
  4. Death
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
91
Q

Apex beat - what should be kept in mind?

A

Beware of DEXTROCARDIA. If no beat is felt - check the right side.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
92
Q

CV exam - Percussion?

A

Not useful - not included.

93
Q

MV area?

A

5th intercostal space in the mid-axillary line (the apex)

94
Q

TV area?

A

5th intercostal space

95
Q

PV area?

A

2nd intercostal space at the left sternal edge.

96
Q

AV area?

A

2nd intercostal space at the right sternal edge.

97
Q

If unsure about the S1 and S2, or where the murmur is occuring?

A

You can palpate one carotid pulse while listening to the heart - enabling you to feel systole.
Carotid pulse occurs with S1.

98
Q

S1?

A

MV closure is the main component of S1.

99
Q

Loud S1?

A

Forceful closing:

  1. MV stenosis
  2. TV stenosis
  3. Tachycardia
100
Q

Soft S1?

A

Prolonged ventr. filling or delayed systole:

  1. Left bundle branch block
  2. AV stenosis
  3. AV regurgitation
101
Q

Variable S1?

A

Variable ventr. filling:

  1. A-fib
  2. Complete heart block
102
Q

Soft S2?

A

DECR. mobility of AV (AV stenosis) OR if leaflets fail to close properly (AV regurgitation).

103
Q

Loud S2?

A
  1. Aortic component loud in HTN or congenital AV stenosis (here the valve is narrowed but mobile).
  2. Pulmonary component loud in pulmonary HTN.
104
Q

Splitting of S2 - Exaggerated normal splitting?

A

Caused by DELAY in RV emptying:

  1. Right bundle branch block
  2. PV stenosis
  3. VSD
  4. MV regurgitation
105
Q

Splitting of S2 - Fixed splitting?

A

No difference in the extent of splitting between inspiration and expiration.
Usually due to ASD.

106
Q

Splitting of the S2 - Reversed splitting?

A 
Pulmonary component comes before aortic component. 
Caused by a delay in LV emptying:
1. Left bundle branch block
2. AV stenosis
3. AV regurgitation
107
Q

S3?

A

Low freq sound (can be JUST heard with the bell) occurring AFTER S2.
–> Triple or gallop rhythm.

108
Q

S3 mechanism?

A

At the end of rapid ventricular filling, early in diastole and is caused by tautening of the papillary muscles or ventricular distention.

109
Q

Physiological S3?

A

Soft sound heard only at the apex, normal in children and fit adults up to 30.

110
Q

Pathological S3?

A

–> Some impairment of LV function or rapid ventricular filling:
1. DCM
2. AV regurgitation
3. MV regurgitation
4. Constrictive pericarditis
May be associated with a high-pitched pericardial knock.

111
Q

S4?

A
  1. Late DIASTOLIC (just before S1) caused by DECR. compliance - or INCR. stiffness - of the ventr. myocardium.
  2. Coincides with abnormally forceful atrial contraction and raised end diastolic pressure in the LV.
112
Q

S4 - physiological?

A

NEVER

113
Q

S4 etiology?

A
  1. HCM

2. Systemic HTN

114
Q

For each murmur determine?

A
  1. Timing
  2. Site and radiation (where is it heard the loudest?)
  3. Loudness and pitch
  4. Relationship to posture and respiration
115
Q

Particularly essential in establishing the sound’s origin?

A

The TIMING of the murmur.

116
Q

How to determine if the murmur occurs during systole or diastole?

A

By feeling the carotid pulse.

117
Q

Systolic murmurs?

A
  1. Pansystolic
  2. Ejection systolic
  3. Late systolic
118
Q

Pansystolic murmur mechanism?

A

Tends to be due to BACKFLOW of blood from the ventricle to an atrium.

119
Q

Pansystolic murmur etiology?

A
  1. TV/MV regurgitation

2. VSD

120
Q

Ejection systolic murmur mechanism?

A
  1. Start quietly at the beginning of systole, quickly rise to a crescendo and decrescendo creating a “whoosh” sound.
  2. Caused by turbulent flow of blood out of a ventricle.
121
Q

Ejection systolic murmur etiology?

A
  1. PV/AV stenosis
  2. HCM
  3. Also if flow is fast - fever, fit young adults.
122
Q

Late systolic murmur mechanism?

A
  1. Audible gap between S1 and the start of the murmur which then continues until S2.
  2. Typically, due to TV/MV regurgitation through a prolapsing valve.
123
Q

Diastolic murmurs?

A
  1. Early
  2. Mid-diastolic
  3. Austin-Flint
  4. Graham-Steele
124
Q

Early diastolic murmur - mechanism?

A

Usually due to backflow through incompetent AV or PV.
Starts loud at S2 and decrescendos during diastole.
Like whispering the letter “R”.

125
Q

Mid-diastolic murmur - mechanism?

A

Usually due to flow through a narrowed MV or PV.
Begin later in diastole - may be brief or continue up to S1.
Lower pitched than early diastolic murmurs.

126
Q

Austin-Flint murmur - mechanism?

A

Audible vibration of the MV during diastole as it is hit by flow of blood due to SEVERE AORTIC REGURGITATION.

127
Q

Graham-Steele murmur - mechanism?

A

Pulmonary regurgitation secondary to pulmonary artery dilatation caused by INCR. pulmonary artery pressure in MV stenosis.

128
Q

Continuous murmurs - etiology?

A
  1. PDA

2. AV fistula

129
Q

Murmur radiation?

A

The murmur will tend to radiate in the direction of the blood flow that is causing the sound.

130
Q

Example - murmur of AV stenosis will radiate where?

A

Up to the carotids.

131
Q

Grading the volume of a murmur?

A

1-6 according to loudness.

132
Q

Position - affects murmurs?

A

Some will become LOUDER - gravity aid the flow of blood creating the sound.

133
Q

AV regurgitation - affected by position?

A

Louder if the patient sits up, leans forward.

134
Q

MV stenosis - affected by position?

A

Louder if you ask the patient to lie on their left-hand side.

135
Q

Respiration - affects murmurs?

A
  1. Right-sided murmurs (PV stenosis) tend to be LOUDER during INSPIRATION - Due to incr. venous return.
  2. Left-sided murmurs are LOUDER during EXPIRATION.
136
Q

Valvalva manoeuvre - affects murmurs?

A 
Decr. CO --> soften most murmurs.
EXCEPT:
1. HCM
2. MV regurgitation 
3. MVP
murmurs that will get louder on release of Valsalva.
137
Q

Extra sounds - Opening snap?

A

MV normally opens immediately after S2.
In MV stenosis –> sudden opening of the stiffened valve can cause an audible high-pitched snap.
–> May be followed by the murmur of MV stenosis.

138
Q

Extra sounds - opening snap - best heard?

A

Over the LEFT sternal edge with the diaphragm of the stethoscope.

139
Q

Extra sounds - ejection click?

A

Similar to the opening snap of MV stenosis –> high-pitched click heard EARLY in systole –> due to opening of stiffened AV (AV stenosis).
–> Associated with BICUSPID AV valves.

140
Q

Extra sounds - ejection click - best heard?

A

At the aortic or pulmonary areas and down the left sternal edge.

141
Q

Extra sounds - mid-systolic click?

A

Usually by MVP - Sound of the valve leaflet flicking backward (prolapsing) mid-way through ventricular systole.
–> Followed by the murmur of MV regurgitation.

142
Q

Extra sounds - Mid-systolic click - best heard?

A

At the mitral area.

143
Q

Extra sounds - tumor plop?

A

A very rare finding due to atrial myxoma.

144
Q

Pericardial rub - when louder?

A

Louder as the patient is sitting up, leaning forward, and heard best in expiration.

145
Q

AV stenosis - primary site of murmur?

A

Aortic area + apex.

146
Q

AV stenosis - radiation?

A

To carotid arteries.

147
Q

AV stenosis - timing?

A

Ejection systolic.

148
Q

AV stenosis - added sounds?

A

Ejection click (bicuspid).

149
Q

AV regurgitation - primary site of murmur?

A

Left sternal edge.

150
Q

AV regurgitation - Radiation?

A

Towards apex.

151
Q

AV regurgitation - timing?

A

Early diastolic

152
Q

AV regurgitation - Added sounds?

A

Austin-Flint murmur.

153
Q

MV stenosis - primary site of murmur?

A

Apex

154
Q

MV stenosis - radiation?

A

Nil

155
Q

MV stenosis - timing?

A

Mid-diastolic

156
Q

MV stenosis - added sounds?

A

Opening snap

157
Q

MV regurgitation - primary site of murmur?

A

Apex

158
Q

MV regurgitation - radiation?

A

Toward left axilla or base of left lung.

159
Q

MV regurgitation - timing?

A

Pansystolic

160
Q

MV regurgitation - added sounds?

A

Mid-systolic click (if prolapsing).

161
Q

TV regurgitation - primary site of murmur?

A

Lower left sternal edge

162
Q

TV regurgitation - radiation?

A

Lower right sternal edge, liver!.

163
Q

TV regurgitation - timing?

A

Pansystolic

164
Q

TV regurgitation - added sounds?

A

No added sounds.

165
Q

PV stenosis - primary site of murmur?

A

Upper left sternal edge.

166
Q

PV stenosis - radiation?

A

Left clavicular region.

167
Q

VSD - primary site of murmur?

A

Left sternal edge.

168
Q

VSD - radiation?

A

Whole of the precordium.

169
Q

VSD - timing?

A

Pansystolic

170
Q

Rest of the body - lung bases?

A

Look especially for crackles or signs of effusion.

171
Q

Rest of the body - The abdomen?

A

Look for:

  1. Hepatomegaly - Is the liver pulsatile (severe TV regurgitation)
  2. Splenomegaly
  3. Ascites
  4. AAA
  5. Renal bruits - Renal artery stenosis
  6. Enlarged kidneys
172
Q

Varicosities - appearance?

A

Visible, dilated, tortuous, subcutaneous veins caused by backflow of blood from the deep veins - usually a branch of the long saphenous vein.

173
Q

Varicose veins - how to examine?

A
  1. Patient in standing position with the legs fully exposed.

2. Note any surrounding edema, eczema, brown pigmentation, or ulcers.

174
Q

Palpation of varicose veins?

A
  1. Gently feel the varicose veins - hard veins may contain thrombus.
  2. Ask patient to cough - If there is palpable pulsation in the varicosity, there may be valvular incompetence at the long saphenous vein in the groin.
175
Q

Percussion of varicose veins?

A
  1. Apply fingers of one hand to the upper part of the varicose vein.
  2. Gently flick the lower part of the vein with the other hand.
    - If there is a palpable wave sent up the vein, there are incompetent valves between those 2 points.
176
Q

Trendelenburg test?

A
  1. Ask patient to lie down and raise their leg so as to drain the veins.
  2. Apply a tourniquet over the saphenous vein (upper half of thigh).
  3. Ask patient to stand.
    - -> You can determine the site of the incompetent perforating vein…do the varicose veins fill above or below the tourniquet?
  4. Repeat the procedure until you are able to pin-point the exact location of the incompetence and, by applying localized pressure, prevent the varicose veins from filling at all.
177
Q

MV stenosis - symptoms?

A
  1. Dyspnea
  2. Cough of frothy (pink?) sputum
  3. Palpitations (often associated with a-fib and resultant emboli)
178
Q

MV stenosis - signs?

A
  1. Palmar erythema
  2. Malar flush
  3. “Tapping” apex beat
  4. Left parasternal heave
  5. Loud S1
  6. Mid-diastolic murmur +/- opening snap
179
Q

MV regurgitation - symptoms?

A
  1. Acute dyspnea

2. Pulmonary congestion

180
Q

MV regurgitation - signs?

A
  1. Collapsing pulse
  2. Sustained apex beat displaced to the left
  3. Left parasternal heave
  4. Soft S1
  5. Loud S2 (pulmonary component)
  6. Pansystolic murmur heard at the apex radiating to left axilla +/- mid-systolic click
  7. S3
181
Q

AV stenosis - symptoms?

A
  1. Angina
  2. Syncope
  3. Dyspnea
  4. Sudden death
182
Q

AV stenosis - signs?

A
  1. Slow rising pulse
  2. Low BP
  3. Narrow pulse pressure
  4. Sustained and powerful apex beat
  5. Ejection systolic murmur radiating to carotids
  6. Soft S2 +/- ejection click
183
Q

AV regurgitation - symptoms?

A

Similar to AV stenosis.

184
Q

AV regurgitation - signs?

A
  1. Collapsing pulse
  2. Wide pulse pressure
  3. Sustained and displaced apex beat
  4. Soft S2
  5. Early diastolic murmur at the left sternal edge (decrescendo)
  6. +/- ejection systolic murmur (Incr. volume)
  7. May also hear a “pistol shot” sound over the femoral artery with severe aortic regurgitation.
185
Q

TV stenosis - signs?

A
  1. Auscultation similar to that of MV stenosis
  2. Hepatomegaly
  3. Pulsatile liver
  4. Venous congestion
186
Q

TV regurgitation - signs?

A
  1. Dilated neck veins
  2. Prominent v wave in JVP which may, rarely, cause the earlobe to oscillate !!
  3. Pansystolic murmur louder on inspiration with a loud pulmonary component of S2
  4. Left parasternal heave
  5. Pulsatile liver
  6. Peripheral and sacral edema
  7. Ascites
  8. May also hear a S3 and evidence of a-fib
187
Q

PV stenosis - signs?

A
  1. Normal pulse with an ejection systolic murmur radiating to lung fields often with a palpable thrill over the pulmonary area.
  2. Other signs of RH strain or failure.
188
Q

PV regurgitation - signs?

A
  1. Loud S2 which may be palpable

2. Early diastolic murmur heard at the pulmonary area and high at the left sternal edge.

189
Q

Corrigan’s sign?

A

Sign of AV regurgitation:

Prominent carotid pulsation.

190
Q

De Musset’s sign?

A

Sign of AV regurgitation:

Head-nodding in time with the heartbeat.

191
Q

Mueller’s sign?

A

Sign of AV regurgitation:

Pulsation of the uvula in time with the heartbeat.

192
Q

Hill’s sign?

A

Sign of AV regurgitation:

Higher BP in the legs than in the arms.

193
Q

Quincke’s sign?

A

Sign of AV regurgitation:

Nailbed capillary pulsation.

194
Q

VSD - symptoms?

A
  1. Children often asymptomatic.

2. If large –> patient may suffer CHF with dyspnea and fatigue.

195
Q

VSD - signs?

A
  1. There may be cyanosis and clubbing.
  2. Heart sounds usually appear normal but if pulmonary HTN develops, may hear a loud pulmonary component of S2 with RV heave.
  3. May also be a pansystolic murmur heard at the left sternal edge often accompanied by a palpable thrill.
  4. Signs may settle with time, the right heart pressure increases causing less shunting and a softer murmur.
196
Q

ASD - symptoms of secondum defect?

A
  1. Asymptomatic if small.
  2. Fatigue
  3. Dyspnea
  4. Palpitations (atrial arrhythmias)
  5. Recurrent pulmonary infections
  6. Other symptoms of HF
  7. Also associated with migraine and paradoxical emboli.
197
Q

ASD - symptoms of primum defect?

A
  1. Symptoms of HF in childhood with a failure to thrive.
  2. Chest infections and poor development.
  3. In adults there may be a syncope (heart block) and symptoms suggestive of endocarditis.
198
Q

ASD - signs?

A
  1. Fixed splitting of S2
  2. Incr. flow over the normal pulmonary valve may give an ejection systolic murmur.
  3. Left parasternal heave with a normal or diffuse apical impulse.
  4. Particularly in ostium primum defects (endocardial cushion defects), you may hear the pansystolic murmur of MV regurgitation or co-existant VSD (or both).
  5. Look for signs of pulmonary HTN.
199
Q

PDA - symptoms?

A
  1. Often asymptomatic

2. Severe - dyspnea on exertion.

200
Q

PDA - signs?

A
  1. Collapsing pulse
  2. Heaving apex beat
  3. “Machinery” (continuous) murmur heard all over the precordium
  4. S2 not heard.
  5. Systolic or diastolic thrill in the 2nd intercostal space on the left.
201
Q

Coarctation of the aorta - symptoms?

A
  1. Usually asymptomatic
  2. Headache
  3. Epistaxis
  4. Dizziness
  5. Palpitations
  6. Claudication
  7. Leg fatigue
  8. May also give symptoms of CHF
202
Q

Coarctation of the aorta - signs?

A
  1. Incr. BP in the upper limbs.
  2. Radio-femoral delay
  3. Ejection systolic murmur at the left sternal edge
  4. Sometimes palpable collateral arteries over the scapulae with interscapular bruits.
  5. May also have underdeveloped lower limbs.
203
Q

Coarctation of the aorta - associations?

A
  1. Often with AV stenosis
  2. Aortic aneurysms
  3. Bicuspid AV
  4. Turner
204
Q

Tetralogy of Fallot?

A
  1. PV stenosis
  2. VSD (infundibular)
  3. RV hypertrophy
  4. Overriding aorta
    (5. If associated with an ASD also –> Fallot’s pentalogy)
205
Q

Tetralogy of Fallot - symptoms?

A
  1. Syncope
  2. Squatting relieves breathlessness
  3. Growth retardation
206
Q

Tetralogy of Fallot - signs?

A
  1. Finger clubbing
  2. Central cyanosis with superadded paroxysms (spells).
  3. Murmurs of PV stenosis or the VSD may be heard along with a systolic thrill and left parasternal heave.
207
Q

Pericarditis - causes?

A
  1. Collagen diseases
  2. TB
  3. Post-infarction
  4. Idiopathic
208
Q

Pericarditis - symptoms?

A
  1. Constant retrosternal “soreness” WORSE on inspiration (pleuritic).
  2. Relieved slightly by sitting forwards.
  3. NOT related to movement or exertion.
209
Q

Pericarditis - if chronic, constrictive, may cause?

A
  1. Kussmaul’s sign
  2. Impalpable apex beat
  3. S3
  4. Hepatomegaly
  5. Splenomegaly
  6. Ascites (pseudo-cirrhosis)
210
Q

Pericardial effusion - signs?

A
  1. Pulsus paradoxus
  2. Incr. JVP
  3. Impalpable apex beat
  4. Soft heart sounds
  5. Hepatomegaly
  6. Ascites
  7. Peripheral edema
211
Q

LVF - symptoms?

A
  1. May include shortness of breath on exertion
  2. Orthopnea
  3. Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea
  4. Cough with pink frothy sputum
  5. Fatigue
  6. Weight loss
  7. Muscle wasting
  8. Anorexia
212
Q

LHF - signs?

A
  1. May appear tired
  2. Pale
  3. Sweaty
  4. Clammy
  5. Tachycardic
  6. Thready pulse
  7. Low BP
  8. Narrow pulse pressure
  9. Displaced apex beat
  10. (murmur of an underlying valvular abnormality?)
  11. S3, S4
  12. Tachypnea
  13. Crepitations at the lung bases
213
Q

RVF - symptoms?

A

As above with peripheral edema and facial swelling.

214
Q

RVF - signs?

A
  1. Raised JVP
  2. Hepatomegaly
  3. Ascites
  4. Peripheral (sacral?) edema
  5. Pulsatile liver (if tricuspid regurgitation).
215
Q

HCM - symptoms?

A
  1. Often none

2. If present - shortness of breath, angina, syncope.

216
Q

HCM - signs?

A
  1. Sharp rising (jerky) pulse
  2. Prominent JVP a wave
  3. Double apex beat
  4. Late systolic murmur at left sternal edge which increases with Valsalva maneuvre.
217
Q

Peripheral vascular disease - symptoms?

A

Claudication

218
Q

Peripheral vascular disease - signs?

A
  1. Shiny, pale, cold limb
  2. Hair loss
  3. Absent pulse
  4. If severe –> ischemic ulceration and gangrene.
219
Q

DVT - often confused with?

A
  1. Cellulitis

2. Ruptured popliteal cyst

220
Q

DVT - symptoms?

A
  1. Calf pain
  2. Swelling
  3. Loss of use
221
Q

DVT - signs?

A
  1. Warm
  2. Tense
  3. Swollen limb
  4. Erythema
  5. Dilated supreficial veins
  6. Cyanosis
  7. May be palpable thrombus in the deep veins.
  8. Often pain on palpating the calf.
222
Q

The acutely ischemic limb:

A

Rule of Ps:

  1. Painful (at first becoming…)
  2. Painless (numb)
  3. Pale
  4. Paralyzed
  5. Pulseless
223
Q

Elderly patient - angina?

A
  1. Presents in multitude of ways.
  2. Avoid labeling symptom as pain (which can irritate many patients)
  3. “Discomfort”, “twinges”, “aches” are equally common.
  4. Many have few symptoms - may present with sweating or breathlessness - ask if related to exertion.
224
Q

Elderly patients - orthopnea:

A

Ask WHY extra pillows –> Often due to other symptoms such as arthritis.
Do they sleep upright in a chair.

225
Q

Elderly patients - breathlessness:

A
  1. Relates to LOW-OUTPUT - NOT necessarily pulm. edema.

2. Fatigue is common - should NOT be overlooked.

226
Q

Elderly patients - examination:

A
  1. General - look for clues (GTN sprays, patient returning from the bathroom)
  2. Auscultate and think - especially for valve lesions.
  3. Edeme –> careful with palpation –> Painful!
  4. Check peripheral pulses
227
Q

Elderly patients - additional point:

A

Respiratory illnesses often OVERLAP - Pulmonary fibrosis and LVF.
If things don’t add up, or there is little response to treatment –> revisit your diagnosis.

228
Q

Mechanism of splitting of 2nd HS?

A

Inspiration –> Intrathoracic pressure drops –> Drawing blood into the chest –> Incr. delivery to the right side of the heart –> Decr. delivery to the left as it pools in the pulmonary veins –> SV greater on the right side –> RV contraction takes longer –> PV will close very slightly later than the AV (lub da-dub).

Internal Medicine (106 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions