Non-verbal Communication

Question 1

Dominant Gestures v. Acquiescing Gestures

Answer 1

Dominant Gestures
- Wider stance or posture: Taking up more space, whether standing or sitting, can signal authority and dominance.
- Steepling of hands: Forming a triangle with the fingers (palms apart, fingertips touching) is often seen as a gesture of control or authority.
- Direct eye contact: Maintaining strong eye contact can indicate confidence and assertiveness.
- Chin up: Holding the head high with the chin slightly lifted is a gesture of self-assurance.
- Pointing or using hand gestures while speaking: Pointing at people or things or using large hand gestures can demonstrate control or emphasize importance.
- Firm handshake: A strong handshake is often associated with confidence and dominance in social interactions.

Acquiescing Gestures
- Lowering the head: Bowing or tilting the head downward can be a sign of submission or deference.
- Crossed arms or legs: This can sometimes indicate a closed or passive stance, although context matters (it can also indicate comfort or defense).
- Nodding frequently: Excessive nodding can signal agreement or acquiescence, even if the person doesn’t fully agree.
- Avoiding eye contact: Looking down or away can be interpreted as a lack of confidence or submissiveness in certain contexts.
- Smiling excessively: While smiling can be positive, smiling too often in some settings may convey submissiveness, especially if it is used to placate or ease tension.
- Leaning back or away: Leaning away from the speaker or situation can indicate withdrawal or lack of engagement.

Question 2

Human Communication

Answer 2

The process of one person stimulating meaning in the mind of another person (or persons) by means of verbal and/or nonverbal messages

Question 3

Definition of nonverbal communication (NVC)

Answer 3

the process of one person stimulating meaning in the mind of another person or persons by means of nonverbal messages

Question 4

FM-NVC

Answer 4

Female-male nonverbal communcation - Refers to nonverbal communication patterns that arrise when women communicate with men

Question 6

Relationship Between verbal and non-verbal communication

Answer 6

Nonverbal behavior CAN (but does not always) influence the meaning of verbal communication

NVC does not necessarily connect to verbal language.
NVC exists even when you do not use words at all.

*Even speaking on the phone still relies on nonverbal messages. Tone, pauses, accent, vocal fillers, etc.

Question 8

NVC perspective on the phrase “read you like a book”

Answer 8

It simply isn’t possible. Every person is different, best we can do is identify common patterns. Even then it doesn’t determine total understanding

It’s your interaction over time with a person that determines your understanding of their unique nonverbal communication behaviors. And even then, it isn’t perfect

Question 9

NVC perspective on the myth that “a person avoids eye contact when they are lying “

Answer 9

It used to be true, but only is Western culture (outside of western culture, people avoid eye contact as a sign of respect.) but not anymore. Liars in Western culture now make a point of maintaining eye contact so they do not immediately appear dishonest.

Question 10

Meaning of a smile in NVC

Answer 10

Approval seeking behavior.
International sign of friendship and understanding

Interpretations can be gender dependent

Question 11

Factors in understanding NVC (what makes is so hard to assign generalized meaning?)

Answer 11

Top level understanding:
1) Varies from person to person
2) NVC varies across culture (This is why ALL aspects of NVC should be put in the context of CULTURE. It influences all communication modes)

Lower-level understanding
1) NVC varies based on a person’s genetics (especially when it comes to things like stride and posture that are influenced by skeletal structure and breast size)
2) NVC varies based on a person’s environment (people often learn their nonverbal behaviors from the people around them)
3) NVC varies based on which behaviors have been conditioned (especially by culture)

*Means you need to pay attention and learn the cues exhibited by a particular person

Question 12

NVC perspective on the idea that “Nonverbal behavior has an intrinsic meaning “

Answer 12

It does not. We assign meaning to these cues as a society, but they do not have an intrinsic meaning

Question 13

Five distinctions between Verbal v. NVC

Answer 13

1) Linguistic Distinction: Verbal communication and NVC have different “coding systems”
a. NVC does not have its own coding system
b. In verbal communication, certain words have certain meaning and we learn to operate within that particular meaning (it is created to have the same ‘denontational’ meaning)
2) Continuity Distinction: Verbal language has starts and stops. NVC is continuous. Everything you do is something from which someone can derive meaning
3) Processing Distintion: Learning how to ‘read’ NV
4) Outcome Distinction: Nonverbal messages operate with more relational, emotional meaning
a. Verbal creates information content
b. NVC creates effective/relational/emotional function (the tone that someone uses can say something somepletely different from the verbal message
5) Absolute Distinction: NVC is more ambiguous than verbal
a. Verbal has definitive meaning
b. NVC has more questionable meaning and can have many interpretations

Question 14

Three models of communication

Answer 14

1) The linear model is the simplest and most limited, useful for understanding one-way communication but inadequate for interactive or complex exchanges.
2) The interactive model introduces feedback and recognizes that communication is more than just sending and receiving messages; however, it still treats communication as a back-and-forth exchange rather than a simultaneous process.
3) The transactional model is the most comprehensive and realistic, viewing communication as a continuous, dynamic process where both parties are actively involved in shaping the exchange, making it the best model for understanding real-world, interpersonal communication.

Question 15

Key aspects of the transactional model of communication

Answer 15

Each communicator is relying on signals from the other (which are continuous due to the continuous nature of NVC) and using it as feedback.

These signals can become cluttered by noise from the environment (or the conversation partners)

These signals must be put into the context of the field of experience (the totality of each communicator’s experience… largely dependent on their culture and their childhood)

Question 16

The “field of experience”

Answer 16

The shared background or knowledge that facilitates understanding between communicators.

*All the models of communication should be put into this context

Question 17

“Noise” in communication

Answer 17

Any interference that can disrupt the message, whether internal or external.

It is a part of all messages, whether verbal or non-verbal

Question 18

Eye contact during conversation in the US

Answer 18

People find it frustrating to communicate with someone who is looking everywhere but in one’s eyes. When someone is not looking at you while conversing, you feel as if you are not really a part of the conversation.

Question 19

Six functions of non-verbal communication

Answer 19

1) ‘complement’ the verbal message
2) ‘contradict’ the verbal message
3) ‘accent’ the verbal message
4) ‘repeat’
5) ‘regulate’
6) ‘substitute’

Question 20

Physiognomy

Answer 20

The study of appearance/appearance-based messages

Question 21

Albert Mehrabian

Answer 21

Key Contribution: Mehrabian is well-known for his work on non-verbal communication, particularly the 7-38-55 rule, which suggests that communication of emotions is 7% verbal, 38% vocal tone, and 55% facial expressions. He also developed the Mehrabian Arousal-Seeking Scale (MASS), which examines individual tendencies to seek or avoid sensory stimulation and arousal.

Influence: His work is foundational in understanding how non-verbal cues and arousal-seeking behaviors differ between men and women and how these differences impact social interaction.

Major Works: Silent Messages (1971)

Question 22

Judith A. Hall

Answer 22

Key Contribution: Hall’s research focuses on non-verbal communication, particularly the accuracy with which men and women can read and express emotions. Her work has shown that women tend to be better at decoding non-verbal cues, which has broad implications for understanding gender differences in emotional and social interactions.

Influence: Hall’s studies provide key insights into the experience-seeking dimension of the MASS, as women’s greater emotional sensitivity may reflect a higher tendency to engage in complex emotional experiences.

Major Works: Nonverbal Sex Differences: Communication Accuracy and Expressive Style (1984)

Question 23

Albert E. Scheflen

Answer 23

Contribution: the concept of quasicourtship cues in the 1960s and 1970s. These cues refer to non-verbal behaviors that individuals exhibit, often unconsciously, to signal interest, attraction, or readiness for social interaction—particularly in contexts related to courtship or social bonding. However, Scheflen referred to these as “quasi” cues because, in many cases, these behaviors are not intended to explicitly initiate romantic or sexual interaction but can still convey openness to it.

Influence: Scheflen’s research on quasicourtship cues was significant in advancing the understanding of non-verbal communication, particularly in terms of how individuals unconsciously signal availability and interest in social settings. His work showed that human interaction is deeply influenced by subtle, often unconscious behaviors that go beyond verbal communication.

Scheflen, A. E. (1965). Quasi-Courtship Behavior in Psychotherapy. Psychiatry, 28(3), 245-257.

Question 24

Quasicourtship

Answer 24

Courtship typically involves intentional actions aimed at initiating or progressing a romantic relationship.
Quasicourtship, in contrast, is a more subtle, often unintentional display of similar behaviors that enhance social bonding or rapport without necessarily aiming for romantic involvement.

Key Aspects of Quasicourtship:
Unconscious Nature: Quasicourtship behaviors often occur automatically without conscious intent to flirt or engage romantically. People might exhibit these behaviors when they want to make a positive impression, appear likable, or simply signal that they are open to interaction.

Non-Sexual Contexts: Although the cues may resemble courtship behaviors, quasicourtship can take place in non-romantic interactions, such as during conversations between colleagues, friends, or acquaintances. The behaviors aim to foster positive social bonds rather than to initiate courtship.

Phases of Quasicourtship: According to Scheflen, these behaviors can be grouped into stages, such as courtship readiness (showing physical vitality and alertness), preening (grooming behaviors like adjusting clothes or hair), positional cues (body orientation showing openness), and actions of appeal or invitation (gestures that invite closer interaction, like smiling or touching).

Question 25

Phases of quasicourtship

Answer 25

Courtship Readiness: Individuals display signals of physical alertness and vitality. For example, posture may become more upright, or the body may appear more energized. This stage involves preparatory behaviors that signal one is “ready” for interaction, such as preening or adjusting clothing.
Preening Behavior: This stage involves grooming actions, such as fixing hair, smoothing clothing, or checking one’s appearance. These behaviors are meant to enhance one’s appearance, often subconsciously, in anticipation of attracting or maintaining attention.
Positional Cues: These cues involve body orientation and positioning that signal openness to interaction. For example, an individual may angle their body toward the person they are interested in or lean in slightly to indicate attention and engagement.
Actions of Appeal or Invitation: This final stage includes behaviors that invite closer interaction, such as subtle touches, more direct eye contact, or smiling. These gestures are intended to signal openness and approachability, creating an atmosphere of mutual interest.

Question 26

Shirely Weitz

Answer 26

Key Contribution: Weitz’s work on gendered communication explores how societal norms shape non-verbal behavior in men and women. She emphasized how women are socialized to use more affiliative gestures (e.g., smiling, eye contact) while men often display more dominant non-verbal cues.

Influence: Weitz’s research directly relates to the understanding of dominant and acquiescing gestures in gendered interactions, which are often linked to the MASS’s arousal-seeking dimensions.

Major Works: Nonverbal Communication: Readings with Commentary (1974)

Question 27

Immediacy

Answer 27

Refers to behaviors that signal psychological closeness, warmth, and approachability. These behaviors make interactions more engaging by reducing physical and emotional distance between people. Immediacy cues include actions such as direct eye contact, open body posture, leaning forward, smiling, nodding, touching, and vocal warmth. In the context of courtship and attractiveness, immediacy plays a key role in how individuals express interest and attraction toward one another.

Males and females who appear to be more immediate receive more communication from others than nonimmediate males or females.

Question 28

Factors that Determine Immediacy

Answer 28

Eye Contact: Sustained eye contact signals attention, interest, and intimacy.

Body Orientation: Facing someone directly or leaning toward them shows engagement and closeness.

Gestures: Open gestures (e.g., arms and hands visible) convey openness and involvement, while closed gestures (e.g., crossed arms) can indicate distance.

Touch: Light, non-invasive touch can indicate warmth and interest.

Facial Expressions: Smiling, nodding, and appropriate emotional expressions enhance feelings of warmth and connection.

Proximity: Being physically close to someone, without invading personal space, signals interest and psychological closeness.

Question 29

Ray Birdwhistell

Answer 29

Contribution: Birdwhistell introduced the concept of kinesics, the study of body language as a system of communication, much like spoken language.
Impact: He argued that nonverbal cues like gestures, posture, and facial expressions are structured systems of meaning, similar to linguistic structures. This idea was revolutionary in legitimizing body movement as a valid form of communication.
First Published: Birdwhistell’s landmark book “Introduction to Kinesics: An Annotation System for Analysis of Body Motion and Gesture” was published in 1952. This work laid the foundation for understanding gestures as part of NVC.

Question 30

David McNeill

Answer 30

Contribution: McNeill’s research demonstrated that hand gestures are an integral part of language, rather than merely accessories to speech.
Impact: His work led to the understanding that gestures and speech form a unified system for conveying meaning, challenging the idea that language and body language are separate processes.
First Published: His book “Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal about Thought” (1992) is widely considered his most important work, showing that gestures provide insight into human thought processes.

Question 31

Michael Argyle

Answer 31

Contribution: Argyle studied the role of eye contact and gaze in regulating interpersonal interactions, showing that gaze plays a crucial role in social communication, power dynamics, and intimacy.

Impact: His work on gaze behavior emphasized how eye contact can convey emotions, establish dominance, or express affection, leading to a better understanding of the subtleties of social interaction.

First Published: His research was first consolidated in “The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour” (1967), which included detailed analyses of eye behavior.

Question 32

Adam Kendon

Answer 32

Contribution: Kendon studied the role of gaze and body movements in communication, particularly how gaze is coordinated with gestures to create meaningful interactions.

Impact: Kendon’s work furthered the idea that nonverbal behaviors like gaze are not merely reactions but are actively involved in structuring communication.

First Published: His important work “Conducting Interaction: Patterns of Behavior in Focused Encounters” was published in 1990, offering detailed analysis of gaze and gesture synchronization in conversation.

Question 33

Carroll Izard

Answer 33

Contribution: Izard researched emotional facial expressions, particularly in infants, and developed the Differential Emotions Theory, which proposes that emotions are hardwired into humans and are expressed similarly across different cultures.

Impact: Izard’s work provided empirical support for the universality of emotional expressions, contributing significantly to cross-cultural studies of emotion and facial expressions.

First Published: His foundational book “The Face of Emotion” was published in 1971, where he systematically laid out his findings on facial expressions and emotions.

Question 34

Silvan Tomkins

Answer 34

Contribution: Tomkins developed the Affect Theory, which posits that facial expressions are closely linked to emotional experiences and are the primary way humans communicate feelings.

Impact: His work had a profound influence on the study of emotional expression, showing that emotions are biologically rooted and observable through facial movements.

First Published: Tomkins published his theory in the multi-volume work “Affect, Imagery, Consciousness” (1962–1992), with the first volume, “The Positive Affects,” marking the introduction of his ideas.

Question 35

Albert Mehrabian

Answer 35

Contribution: Mehrabian is best known for his formula stating that 93% of communication is nonverbal, with 38% being vocal tone (paralanguage) and 55% body language, emphasizing the importance of tone in communication.

Impact: His research highlighted the significance of vocal intonation, pitch, and pace in conveying emotions, leading to a deeper understanding of how people interpret messages beyond words.

First Published: His influential work was first presented in “Silent Messages” (1971), where he detailed his findings on the importance of nonverbal cues in communication.

Question 36

Peter Bull

Answer 36

Contribution: Bull’s research focused on speech patterns, pauses, and vocal cues in conversation, especially in political discourse, identifying how people use vocal behavior to manage conversation and convey meaning.

Impact: Bull’s studies helped demonstrate how vocal features like pauses and tone affect conversational flow and the perception of speakers, particularly in public speaking and debates.

First Published: His key book “The Microanalysis of Political Communication” (2003) delves into how political figures use vocal and nonverbal cues to persuade and manage public perception.

Question 37

Edward T. Hall

Answer 37

Contribution: Hall coined the term proxemics, the study of personal space and how humans use it in interaction.

Impact: His work helped define how different cultures perceive and use space in communication, with significant implications for cross-cultural communication and interpersonal dynamics.

First Published: Hall’s foundational work “The Hidden Dimension” was published in 1966, where he introduced the concept of proxemics and its relevance to NVC.

Question 38

Irwin Altman

Answer 38

Contribution: Altman’s research explored how individuals regulate privacy and personal space, introducing the concept of territorial behavior in human interactions.

Impact: His work on environmental psychology contributed to understanding how humans establish boundaries and regulate social interaction through space.

First Published: His influential book “The Environment and Social Behavior” (1975) discusses his territoriality theory in depth.

Question 39

Sidney Jourard

Answer 39

Contribution: Jourard researched the role of touch in communication, particularly in how touch influences emotional well-being and intimacy in social interactions.

Impact: His studies demonstrated that physical touch is a crucial component of communication, particularly in building trust and connection between people.

First Published: His book “The Transparent Self” (1964) included significant discussions on the importance of touch in interpersonal relationships.

Question 40

Matthew Hertenstein

Answer 40

Contribution: Hertenstein researched how emotions can be communicated through touch, demonstrating that people can accurately identify emotions like anger, fear, and love through physical contact alone.

Impact: His research expanded the understanding of touch as a powerful emotional signal in NVC, showing that tactile communication can convey complex emotions without verbal interaction.

First Published: His notable study, “The Communication of Emotion via Touch”, was published in Emotion in 2006.

Question 41

Robert Levine

Answer 41

Contribution: Levine’s research on time perception across different cultures explored how attitudes toward time affect behavior, stress, and social interactions.
Impact: His work emphasized the profound cultural differences in how time is valued and managed, contributing to a deeper understanding of chronemics in NVC.
First Published: His book “A Geography of Time” (1997) explores the diverse ways cultures interact with time and its impact on communication and social behavior.

Question 42

Paul Ekman

Answer 42

Contribution: Paul Ekman is best known for his research on universal facial expressions of emotion. His work demonstrated that certain facial expressions, such as those for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear, are recognized across cultures, supporting the idea that they are biologically innate rather than socially learned.

Impact: Ekman’s research has been foundational in the field of emotional expression and cross-cultural psychology. His development of the Facial Action Coding System (FACS), a method for systematically categorizing every possible facial movement, has been widely used in psychological research, security, and even technology development (like emotion recognition software).

First Published: His groundbreaking research was first published in “Emotion in the Human Face” (1972), and later expanded in “Unmasking the Face” (1975), which described universal facial expressions of emotion in detail.

Question 43

The “Pencil in the Mouth” Experiment

Answer 43

Researchers/Year: Fritz Strack, Leonard L. Martin, and Sabine Stepper, 1988

Purpose: To investigate whether facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

Method: Participants were asked to hold a pencil in their mouth in different ways, either with their lips (to inhibit smiling) or with their teeth (to induce smiling), without being told the purpose of the experiment. They were then asked to rate the funniness of cartoons.

Findings: Participants who held the pencil in their teeth (mimicking a smile) rated the cartoons as funnier than those who held the pencil with their lips (inhibiting smiling).

Impact: This experiment supported the Facial Feedback Hypothesis, suggesting that facial expressions can influence emotional experience, not just reflect it. It has had a significant impact on understanding the relationship between nonverbal cues (specifically facial expressions) and emotional states.

Question 44

The “Stanford Prison Experiment”
Researchers/Year: Philip Zimbardo, 1971

Answer 44

Purpose: To examine how social roles and the power dynamics of authority affect behavior, including nonverbal communication.

Method: College students were assigned randomly to play the roles of either guards or prisoners in a simulated prison environment. The experiment was intended to last two weeks but was stopped after six days due to the extreme behavior it elicited from the participants.

Findings: The guards adopted dominant and aggressive nonverbal behaviors (e.g., posturing, eye contact, physical gestures) that demonstrated power, while the prisoners exhibited submissive body language and avoidance of eye contact. The experiment highlighted how quickly people can adopt nonverbal behaviors corresponding to power dynamics and social roles.

Impact: Though controversial and ethically questioned, the experiment has become a foundational study in psychology, illustrating how environment and role assignment dramatically shape nonverbal communication and behavior. It also showed the darker side of power dynamics in nonverbal cues.

Question 45

The “Silent Movie” Experiment

Answer 45

Researchers/Year: Albert Mehrabian and colleagues, 1967

Purpose: To determine the relative importance of verbal and nonverbal components of communication in conveying feelings and attitudes.

Method: Participants were asked to listen to recordings where the tone of voice was varied (positive, neutral, or negative) while the verbal content remained neutral or inconsistent with the tone. In other conditions, they viewed only the speaker’s facial expressions or heard only the tone of voice.

Findings: Mehrabian found that 7% of the communication of feelings and attitudes is verbal (words), 38% comes from tone of voice, and 55% is based on facial expressions.

Impact: This study has become one of the most cited in NVC research, though often misinterpreted. The 7%-38%-55% rule only applies to situations involving feelings and attitudes, not all communication. It underscored the powerful role that nonverbal cues play in how messages are interpreted.

Question 46

“Microexpression Recognition Experiment”

Answer 46

Researchers/Year: Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, 1969

Purpose: To study the ability to detect fleeting, involuntary facial expressions that reveal true emotions, even when a person is attempting to conceal them.

Method: Ekman and Friesen filmed people attempting to mask their emotions and analyzed the video frame by frame to detect microexpressions, facial expressions that last for less than a second. They trained participants to recognize these microexpressions.

Findings: Even when people tried to suppress their emotions, brief microexpressions would “leak” through. The study found that some people are better than others at recognizing these subtle cues.

Impact: This research has had far-reaching implications for psychology, law enforcement, security, and even business. It led to the development of the Facial Action Coding System (FACS), which is widely used in fields where detecting deception or hidden emotions is critical.

Question 47

The “Waiting Room” Experiment

Answer 47

Researchers/Year: Solomon Asch, 1951 (Nonverbal variation by various researchers later)

Purpose: To explore the extent to which individuals would conform to group behaviors or opinions, including nonverbal behaviors such as standing up when others do.

Method: In a classic study (and its nonverbal variations), participants were placed in a waiting room with actors who stood up every time a bell rang. The actors performed this nonverbal action without explanation. The researchers observed whether the participant would conform to the nonverbal behavior.

Findings: Many participants began to stand up with the group, even without knowing why, demonstrating the powerful influence of group behavior on individual nonverbal communication.

Impact: This study is foundational in showing how nonverbal cues from a group can lead to conformity. It demonstrates how social pressures affect nonverbal behaviors, contributing to research on group dynamics, peer influence, and social conformity.

Question 48

“Gaze and Intimacy” Experiment

Answer 48

Researchers/Year: Michael Argyle and Janet Dean, 1965

Purpose: To explore the relationship between gaze and interpersonal intimacy.

Method: Participants were placed in controlled conversations where levels of eye contact were systematically manipulated. The researchers measured how gaze affected the level of intimacy perceived between the participants.

Findings: Argyle and Dean proposed Equilibrium Theory, suggesting that people adjust the amount of eye contact, physical distance, and other nonverbal cues to maintain a comfortable level of intimacy. For example, when forced into close proximity, people would reduce eye contact to maintain an appropriate level of emotional distance.

Impact: This experiment was critical in understanding how people use nonverbal behaviors to regulate intimacy and comfort in social interactions. It has had lasting influence in studies of gaze, personal space, and social relationships.

Question 49

“Touch in Communication” Experiment

Answer 49

Researchers/Year: Sidney Jourard, 1966

Purpose: To investigate how touch is used in communication and how it varies across cultures.

Method: Jourard conducted an observational study by recording how many times people touched each other while having a conversation in cafes across different cultures, including France, England, and Puerto Rico.

Findings: The study found that cultural norms greatly influenced the amount of touch in communication. For example, in Puerto Rico, people touched each other far more frequently during conversation than in England.

Impact: This experiment highlighted the cultural differences in touch behavior and introduced the concept of haptics—the study of touch in communication. It has been foundational in cross-cultural NVC research, especially in understanding how cultural norms influence nonverbal behaviors like touch.

Question 50

The Still Face Experiment

Answer 50

Researchers/Year: Edward Tronick, 1975

Purpose: To examine how infants respond to nonverbal cues, particularly when they are deprived of normal facial and emotional feedback from a caregiver.

Method: Mothers were instructed to interact normally with their infants for a few minutes and then abruptly stop all interaction, maintaining a neutral, unresponsive face (the “still face”). The researchers observed the infants’ reactions to this sudden change in nonverbal behavior.

Findings: Infants quickly became distressed when their mothers stopped responding with facial expressions and emotional engagement, often crying, trying to re-engage their mothers, or withdrawing.

Impact: This experiment demonstrated the critical role of nonverbal communication in early emotional and social development. It showed that infants are highly attuned to nonverbal signals and that a lack of response can lead to distress, highlighting the importance of early parent-child interactions for healthy emotional development.

Question 51

“Touch and Compliance” Experiment

Answer 51

Researchers/Year: Nicolas Gueguen, 2002

Purpose: To test whether brief physical touch increases compliance with requests in everyday social situations.

Method: In one of his studies, researchers approached strangers and asked them to complete a survey. Half of the participants were lightly touched on the arm while being asked to participate, while the other half received no touch. Compliance rates were recorded.

Findings: Participants who were lightly touched were significantly more likely to comply with the request compared to those who were not touched.’

Impact: This experiment reinforced the idea that physical touch can positively influence behavior, even in casual interactions. The findings have been applied in marketing, negotiations, and social influence research, showing how subtle nonverbal cues can impact compliance and persuasion.

Question 52

Ekman’s “Facial Expressions in Deaf and Hearing Children” Experiment

Answer 52

Researchers/Year: Paul Ekman, 1973

Purpose: To investigate whether facial expressions of emotion are learned socially or are biologically innate.

Method: Ekman and his team observed deaf and hearing children to compare their use of facial expressions when responding to emotional stimuli. Deaf children had limited social exposure to emotional facial expressions through communication, whereas hearing children had more extensive exposure.

Findings: The facial expressions of deaf children were remarkably similar to those of hearing children, suggesting that basic emotional expressions are not learned through social interaction but are instead biologically innate.

Impact: This experiment supported the universality of facial expressions of emotion, reinforcing Ekman’s argument that these expressions are biologically hardwired. It provided significant evidence for the evolutionary theory of emotional expression.

Question 53

Ekman’s “Cross-Cultural Studies of Facial Expressions”

Answer 53

Researchers/Year: Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, 1969

Purpose: To examine whether facial expressions of basic emotions are universal across different cultures.

Method: Ekman and Friesen traveled to various countries, including remote tribes in Papua New Guinea, and showed participants photographs of people expressing basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise). They then asked participants to identify the emotions being expressed.

Findings: Participants from different cultures, including those with minimal exposure to Western culture, were able to correctly identify the emotions based on the facial expressions.

Impact: This research provided strong evidence for the universality of basic facial expressions, which challenged the then-popular belief that expressions of emotion were culturally learned. It helped establish the biological basis for emotional expression, shaping cross-cultural studies in NVC.

Question 54

Epley & Kruger’s “The Voice and Trust Experiment”

Answer 54

Researchers/Year: Nicholas Epley and Justin Kruger, 2005

Purpose: To investigate the role of vocal tone in the perception of trustworthiness.

Method: Participants listened to voice recordings of strangers giving both truthful and deceptive statements. The participants were tasked with determining whether the speaker was being honest or deceptive based solely on vocal tone, without any accompanying visual or verbal information.

Findings: The participants were able to accurately detect deception based on vocal tone, particularly when speakers used higher-pitched voices and pauses, which are often associated with dishonesty.

Impact: This study highlighted the importance of vocal nonverbal cues in determining trustworthiness, emphasizing how tone, pitch, and pacing influence judgments of credibility. The findings have been influential in fields like law enforcement and counseling, where assessing truthfulness through vocal cues is crucial.

Question 55

Argyle’s “Gaze and Lying” Experiment

Answer 55

Researchers/Year: Michael Argyle, 1968

Purpose: To investigate the relationship between eye contact and deception.

Method: Participants were asked to either tell the truth or lie in a conversation while the researchers recorded the amount of eye contact they made during the interaction.

Findings: Argyle found that people tend to avoid making direct eye contact when they are lying, a behavior that could signal discomfort or guilt. However, he also noted that too much eye contact could be a sign of someone overcompensating for this tendency.

Impact: This study added to the body of research on nonverbal deception detection, showing that eye contact (or the lack thereof) can be an important cue in identifying lies. It has been used in fields such as law enforcement and human resources, where detecting deception through nonverbal behavior is critical.

Question 56

Somer’s “Personal Space and Aggression” Experiment

Answer 56

Researchers/Year: Robert Sommer, 1969

Purpose: To investigate how the invasion of personal space affects aggression and discomfort in social situations.

Method: Participants were placed in a waiting room where researchers would systematically invade their personal space by sitting closer than socially acceptable norms. The participants’ reactions in terms of body language, movement, and verbal responses were recorded.
Findings: When personal space was violated, participants often exhibited signs of discomfort and aggression, such as fidgeting, moving away, and adopting closed body language. The closer the violation, the stronger the negative reaction.

Impact: Sommer’s work on proxemics (the study of personal space) became a key reference in understanding how physical distance influences social behavior and communication. It has had applications in urban design, social psychology, and cross-cultural communication.

Question 57

“Haptics”

Answer 57

The type, amount, uses of, and results of tactile behavior (a type of nonverbal communication)

Question 58

“Skin Hunger”

Answer 58

Strongly felt need for touch, can lead to psychological problems (big problem during COVID)

Question 59

Professional-functional Touch

Answer 59

Definition: This is touch that is task-oriented and devoid of personal meaning. It occurs in professional settings where physical contact is necessary for a functional purpose, rather than for emotional or social reasons.

Examples:
1) A doctor examining a patient during a medical checkup.
2) A hairstylist adjusting someone’s head to cut their hair.
3) A physical therapist manipulating a client’s body to aid in treatment.

Context: The touch serves a specific function, and there is typically a clear professional boundary to avoid emotional or personal connotations.

Question 60

Social-Polite Touch

Answer 60

Definition: This touch follows social norms and customs, often as part of greeting or showing basic courtesy. It is a formal and ritualistic type of contact used to acknowledge others.

Examples:
1) A handshake upon meeting someone.
2) A light pat on the back or shoulder during a congratulation.
3) A brief touch on the arm while making a social introduction.

Context: The touch is light, brief, and not overly personal, but it is used to fulfill social expectations and show respect or acknowledgment.

Question 61

Friendship-Warmth Touch

Answer 61

Definition: This type of touch conveys care, closeness, and warmth between friends or individuals with a friendly relationship. It reflects emotional warmth but typically doesn’t suggest deep romantic or intimate connections.

Examples:
1) A hug between friends when greeting or saying goodbye.
2) An arm around a friend’s shoulder in a gesture of comfort or support.
3) A playful touch or tap between close friends in conversation.

Context: This touch signifies friendship and is generally seen as platonic, though it indicates a stronger emotional connection than social-polite touch.

Question 62

Love-Intimacy Touch

Answer 62

Definition: Love-intimacy touch is the most personal and emotionally expressive form of physical contact, often seen between romantic partners or very close family members. It signifies deep affection, emotional closeness, and intimacy.

Examples:
1) A romantic embrace between partners.
2) Holding hands with a loved one.
3) A tender stroke on the face or cheek between romantic partners.

Context: This type of touch occurs in intimate relationships where a deep level of emotional connection is shared. It is reserved for expressing affection, love, and closeness.

Question 63

Relationship between Love-Intimacy touch and oxytocin

Answer 63

Description: Love-intimacy touch triggers the release of oxytocin, a hormone produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland. Oxytocin is often called the “love hormone” or “bonding hormone” because it plays a critical role in social bonding, attachment, and romantic relationships.

Physiological Effects: Oxytocin promotes feelings of trust, attachment, and emotional bonding. It also helps reduce stress and fosters a sense of well-being and security. Elevated oxytocin levels during intimate touch can strengthen emotional connections between partners.

Example: A romantic embrace or holding hands can increase oxytocin levels, enhancing feelings of emotional closeness and bonding.

Question 64

Relationship between Love-Intimacy touch and cortisol

Answer 64

Description: Love-intimacy touch has been shown to lower levels of cortisol, the hormone associated with stress. Cortisol is released during times of stress, and chronically elevated cortisol levels can negatively affect health by weakening the immune system, increasing blood pressure, and contributing to anxiety or depression.

Physiological Effects: By reducing cortisol levels, intimate touch helps lower stress and anxiety, promoting relaxation. This stress-relieving effect supports overall mental and physical health, including better immune function and lower blood pressure.

Example: Cuddling or intimate hugging has been found to significantly reduce cortisol levels, creating a calming effect.

Question 65

Relationship between Love-Intimacy touch and the parasympathetic nervous system

Answer 65

Description: Love-intimacy touch stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for the “rest and digest” response in the body. This system helps counterbalance the sympathetic nervous system, which triggers the “fight or flight” response.

Physiological Effects: The activation of the parasympathetic system results in slower heart rate, reduced blood pressure, and deeper breathing, all of which contribute to a state of relaxation and comfort.

Example: Physical affection, such as holding a partner or lying close to them, can activate the parasympathetic nervous system, leading to a calming effect and promoting restful states.

Question 66

Relationship between Love-Intimacy touch and serotonin and dopamine

Answer 66

Description: Intimate touch has been linked to the release of serotonin and dopamine, neurotransmitters that play key roles in regulating mood and feelings of pleasure and reward.

Physiological Effects: Serotonin promotes feelings of well-being and happiness, while dopamine is associated with pleasure and reward. Together, these neurotransmitters help improve mood, increase feelings of pleasure, and foster a positive emotional state during and after intimate touch.

Example: Kissing or prolonged intimate touch can increase dopamine and serotonin levels, leading to enhanced mood and stronger emotional bonds.

Question 67

Relationship between Love-Intimacy touch and the immune system

Answer 67

Description: The reduction in cortisol and the increase in oxytocin and serotonin resulting from love-intimacy touch can indirectly support the immune system. Cortisol, when chronically elevated, can suppress immune function, but lower levels allow the immune system to function more effectively.

Physiological Effects: By reducing stress and promoting relaxation, intimate touch helps maintain the balance of immune system functioning, which can contribute to better overall health and increased resistance to illness.

Example: Couples who engage in regular physical affection may have a more robust immune response, potentially leading to fewer illnesses or quicker recovery from illness.

Question 68

Relationship between Love-Intimacy touch and blood pressure

Answer 68

Description: Love-intimacy touch has been associated with reductions in both blood pressure and heart rate due to its calming effect and parasympathetic activation. This can have long-term benefits for cardiovascular health.

Physiological Effects: Lower blood pressure and heart rate reduce the risk of heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular issues, making physical affection and emotional intimacy beneficial for long-term heart health.

Example: Research has shown that people who engage in regular affectionate touch with loved ones tend to have lower resting heart rates and healthier blood pressure levels.

Question 69

Relationship between Love-Intimacy touch and pain

Answer 69

Description: Oxytocin release from love-intimacy touch has been linked to pain relief. Physical affection, such as hugging or massaging, can activate the body’s natural pain-relieving mechanisms.

Physiological Effects: Increased levels of oxytocin and activation of parasympathetic responses can reduce the perception of pain, acting as a natural analgesic.

Example: A gentle touch or embrace from a partner can reduce chronic pain symptoms in some individuals, such as those with fibromyalgia or other pain-related conditions.

Question 70

Physiological Effects of Touch (in general)

Answer 70

Reduction in Cortisol Levels (Stress Reduction)

Explanation: Touch in general—whether in a professional, social, friendly, or intimate context—can lower cortisol levels, helping to reduce stress. While the depth of the emotional bond and the intensity of the touch may vary, studies show that even brief, non-intimate touch (like a handshake or a pat on the back) can have stress-reducing effects.

Reason: Physical touch, through activation of the parasympathetic nervous system, tends to decrease the body’s stress response by lowering cortisol levels. This occurs because touch stimulates the vagus nerve, which plays a central role in promoting relaxation and regulating stress.

Other Physiological Effects:
The activation of the parasympathetic nervous system can also occur across different modes of touch, though the degree to which this is triggered varies with the context. For example, a handshake or a professional touch may elicit a minor response compared to the stronger, more emotionally charged responses from friendship-warmth or love-intimacy touch.

Question 71

Touch as a status symbol

Answer 71

People with higher status usually initiate touch

Question 72

Touch in group based competition

Answer 72

Study: In addition to the NBA study you mentioned, research by Michael W. Kraus (2010) found that teams that engaged in more frequent touch (high fives, pats on the back, etc.) tended to perform better throughout the season.

Findings: The study showed that touch promoted a sense of cooperation, trust, and team cohesion. This sense of bonding led to improved performance during games and was correlated with a higher number of wins over the season.

Impact: This finding is important for understanding how physical touch can foster team unity and improve overall group dynamics in competitive environments.

Question 73

Role of touch in pain perception

Answer 73

Study: In a study by Pavel Goldstein (2017), it was found that physical touch between romantic partners reduces the perception of pain.

Findings: When romantic partners held hands, the person experiencing pain reported lower pain levels. The study also found that their heart rates and breathing patterns synchronized during the touch, which could help explain the pain-relieving effect.

Impact: This research highlights how intimate touch can influence physiological responses to pain, offering a natural form of pain relief through the emotional bond shared by partners.

Question 74

Touch and compliance

Answer 74

Study: A study conducted by Nicolas Guéguen (2004) investigated how touch affects compliance in everyday social situations.

Findings: Guéguen found that people who were lightly touched on the arm were more likely to comply with requests (such as filling out a survey or lending a small amount of money) than those who were not touched. The physical contact increased participants’ willingness to agree to the request.

Impact: This highlights how even brief, non-intrusive touch can enhance social influence and cooperation, likely by increasing trust and rapport between individuals.

Question 75

Premature babies’ response to touch

Answer 75

Study: In a well-known study by Tiffany Field (1986), premature babies in neonatal intensive care units were given daily massages.

Findings: The babies who received massages showed significant improvements in weight gain and development compared to those who did not receive the touch interventions. The massaged infants also left the hospital several days earlier than the control group.

Impact: This research has influenced neonatal care practices, highlighting the role of touch in promoting physical growth and emotional well-being in premature infants.

Question 76

Use of touch to get higher tips

Answer 76

Study: Researchers Crusco and Wetzel (1984) explored how touch affects customer behavior in restaurants.

Findings: When waitstaff lightly touched customers on the arm or shoulder, it led to increased tipping behavior. The customers were unaware of the touch influencing their tipping decisions but subconsciously responded to the gesture by leaving more generous tips.

Impact: This finding illustrates how subtle, polite, non-verbal cues like brief touch can have a significant impact on social interactions and economic decisions.

Question 77

Touch and Perceptions of Competence/Satisfaction

Answer 77

Study: A study conducted by Vincent C. Y. Chen in 2001 examined how physical touch from doctors influenced patient satisfaction.

Findings: Patients who were lightly touched by their doctors on the arm or shoulder during consultations rated the doctors as being more caring and competent, and they reported higher satisfaction with their medical visits. Interestingly, this positive impact occurred even when the touch was brief and non-intimate.

Impact: This shows how even minimal professional touch in clinical settings can improve patient trust, communication, and perceptions of care, potentially enhancing the overall healthcare experience.

Question 78

Adaptors

Answer 78

Definition: Adaptors are unconscious bodily movements or gestures that people make to manage emotions, satisfy personal needs, or cope with anxiety or stress. These are typically not intended to communicate specific messages but are often interpreted by others.
Example: Fidgeting with your hands, tapping your foot, or adjusting your clothes during a stressful situation are examples of adaptors. Biting nails or playing with hair are also common examples.
Usage: Adaptors are often seen in situations where the person feels uncomfortable, anxious, or nervous. While these gestures are not intended to communicate with others, they may still be interpreted as signs of discomfort or stress.

Types of Adaptors:
1) Self-Adaptors: Touching or manipulating your own body to manage stress (e.g., nail-biting, face-touching).
2) Object-Adaptors: Manipulating objects to channel nervous energy (e.g., clicking a pen, playing with a ring).
3) Alter-Adaptors: Movements directed towards others to manage emotions during interaction (e.g., tapping someone’s arm, adjusting another person’s clothing).
4) Manipulators: A specific type of adaptor where hands or other body parts interact with objects or the self to cope with emotions, like playing with a pen.

Question 79

Manipulators

Answer 79

Definition: Manipulators are a subtype of adaptors and involve the use of hands or other body parts to touch, hold, or interact with something, often as a way to manage internal emotions or reduce tension.
Example: Twisting a ring, rubbing your hands together, or playing with a pen are common manipulator behaviors. They are usually linked to nervousness or a need for self-comfort.
Usage: Manipulators are often unconscious and can be used to soothe anxiety, express restlessness, or relieve boredom. They provide a sense of physical comfort or distraction.

Question 80

Self-Adaptors

Answer 80

Definition: Self-adaptors are behaviors where an individual touches or manipulates parts of their own body, often as a way to relieve stress, tension, or anxiety.
Examples:
Biting nails or chewing lips in moments of nervousness.
Rubbing your forehead when deep in thought or stressed.
Scratching your head or touching your face absentmindedly.
Usage: These adaptors are commonly seen in situations where people feel anxious, uncertain, or stressed, and they serve to soothe or comfort the individual.

Question 81

Object-Adaptors

Answer 81

Definition: Object-adaptors involve the manipulation or interaction with objects in the environment. People use objects as tools to distract themselves or manage nervous energy.
Examples:
Clicking a pen repeatedly during a meeting.
Fidgeting with a phone, playing with a ring, or tapping a foot against the floor.
Twisting a napkin or picking at clothing when feeling restless.
Usage: Object-adaptors are often seen in situations where individuals need to channel their nervousness or restlessness into an activity, and they help reduce feelings of anxiety or boredom.

Question 82

Alter-Adaptors

Answer 82

Definition: Alter-adaptors are gestures or movements directed towards others, often used to express or manage emotional tension during social interactions. These movements are less common than self- or object-adaptors but are still significant in conveying discomfort.
Examples:
Tapping someone on the shoulder repetitively or grabbing their arm to seek comfort.
Adjusting someone’s clothing or fidgeting with another person’s belongings when feeling uneasy in a social setting.
Usage: Alter-adaptors typically occur during interactions with others, especially in situations where the individual is feeling uncomfortable or trying to manage anxiety during communication. These behaviors may be interpreted as intrusive or signs of social discomfort.

Question 83

Regulators

Answer 83

Definition: Regulators are nonverbal cues used to control or manage the flow of conversation. They help coordinate turn-taking in conversations and signal when someone should speak, stop speaking, or continue.
Example: Nodding your head to encourage someone to continue speaking, raising your hand to indicate you want to speak, or glancing away to signal that you want to end the conversation are examples of regulators.
Usage: Regulators help to manage the rhythm and structure of social interactions, ensuring smooth communication. They guide interactions without the need for verbal instructions.

Raising your hand: In a classroom or meeting setting, raising a hand to indicate you want to speak.
Leaning forward: Leaning forward during a conversation to signal interest or a desire for the other person to continue speaking.
Breaking eye contact: Looking away or down to signal you are finished speaking or want the conversation to end.
Tapping a pen or fingers: Tapping to indicate impatience or signal that the speaker should wrap up.
Tilting head and nodding: Nodding to encourage the speaker to continue, showing that you’re following along.

Question 84

Illustrators

Answer 84

Definition: Illustrators are gestures that accompany verbal communication and serve to clarify, complement, or emphasize what is being said. They don’t have specific meanings on their own but enhance the verbal message.
Example: When explaining the size of an object, a person might use their hands to show how large or small it is. Pointing to indicate direction while giving directions is another common illustrator.
Usage: Illustrators help to make verbal communication more vivid, engaging, and easier to understand. They are frequently used in presentations, storytelling, or everyday conversations to provide emphasis or clarification.

Using your hands to indicate height: Describing someone’s height by showing it with a flat hand raised to the corresponding level.
Pointing to an object: Directing attention to a specific object by pointing toward it while talking about it.
Drawing a circle in the air: When describing something round, using your hands to draw the shape in the air.
Waving hands to emphasize emotion: Waving hands excitedly while talking about something exciting.
Shrugging shoulders: Accompanying a statement like “I don’t know” with a shoulder shrug.

Question 85

Emblems

Answer 85

Definition: Emblems are nonverbal gestures that have a specific, culturally defined meaning. They function like words and can often be used in place of verbal communication. These gestures have a direct verbal translation and are widely recognized within a particular culture.
Example: A thumbs-up gesture is an emblem that commonly means “good” or “okay” in many cultures. Another example is the “peace sign” made by raising two fingers.
Usage: Emblems are often used to convey messages in situations where speech is not possible or to reinforce verbal communication. Because they have specific meanings, they can be used independently of spoken language.

Peace sign: Raising two fingers in a “V” shape, meaning “peace” in many cultures.
Shaking your head: Side-to-side head movement commonly means “no” or disagreement.
Waving: A common gesture for “hello” or “goodbye.”
OK sign: Forming a circle with the thumb and forefinger, often meaning “okay” or “all right.”
Beckoning gesture: Using one or two fingers to indicate “come here.”

Question 86

Artifacts

Answer 86

Accessories used to adorn our bodies and clothing (always communicate something to the people around us)

Question 87

Importance of Actually understanding nonverbal communication

Answer 87

There is A LOT of misinformation about nonverbal messages…

This misinformation:
- Results in Conflict
- Results in misunderstandings
- Can prevent people from even trying to understand what the other person is communicating

Question 88

Linear Model v. Interactive Model v. Transactional Model

Answer 88

*Transactional is the important one for NVC

Question 89

Kinesics

Answer 89

The study of the communicative impact of body movement and gesture

Question 90

Importance of culture in NVC

Answer 90

Shapes our nonverbal behavior through reinforcement/conditioning and influences those we model ourselves after when we are little

*This means almost every aspect of NVC varies from culture to culture

Question 91

Types of gestures

Answer 91

1) Emblems
2) Illustrators
3) Regulators
4) Adaptors
5) Posture

Question 92

Congruence in Kinesics

Answer 92

Subconsciously matching the other person’s gestures/posture

Question 93

Eight Conversation Styles

Answer 93

1) Dramatic (wide range of illustrative behaviors, behavioral cues may deviate from normal behaviors)
a. Behaviors often deviate from what is “normal behavior” for the speaker
2) Dominant (confident, self-assured, competitive, forceful)
3) Animated (exaggerated bodily motions and gestures)
4) Relaxed (few adaptive behaviors, gestures are controlled)
5) Attentive (focus on receiving messages from others, immediate posture, forward leaning)
6) Open (expansive, extroverted, approach oriented)
7) Friendly (turn requesting, displays of encouragement)
8) Contentious (aggressive dominance, looking for a problem/picking a fight)

Question 94

Three realities of the gestures we use

Answer 94

1) With gestures, we’re Simply encoding and decoding
a. Encoding -creating a message using gestures
b. Deciphering -deciphering what a person is trying to say via their gestures
2) Gestures affect positive or negative perceptions
a. Someone using more adapters seems less attractive
3) Context is key

Question 95

Relationship between “hand proximity” and comfort

Answer 95

Further the hands are from the body, the more comfortable that person is.

If the hands are touching the body (even if it’s just to cross their arms), that is a self-soothing gesture: an indicator if distress/discomfort

Question 96

Perception management

Answer 96

Conciously trying to control or manipulate your own body language

Question 97

Importance of Open Body Language

Answer 97

What it does: Open body language (e.g., uncrossed arms, upright posture) signals confidence and approachability.

Proven Effect: Studies show that individuals who adopt open postures are perceived as more confident, competent, and trustworthy. Open body language invites positive social engagement and reduces the perception of defensiveness or insecurity.

Application: When in a social or professional setting, avoid crossing your arms or hunching over, as these signals can be interpreted as closed-off or unapproachable. Stand or sit with your arms relaxed and your posture upright to project openness and confidence.

Question 98

Importance of Eye contact

Answer 98

What it does: Sustained eye contact communicates confidence, interest, and engagement in conversation.

Proven Effect: Research has consistently found that making appropriate eye contact increases perceptions of trustworthiness, likeability, and authority. Eye contact shows that you are attentive and focused on the interaction, which enhances others’ perception of your credibility.

Application: In social or professional interactions, aim to maintain eye contact about 60-70% of the time. Avoid prolonged staring, but ensure that you look people in the eyes when listening or speaking to show engagement and sincerity.

Question 99

Importance of “Mirroring” in conversation

Answer 99

What it does: Mirroring involves subtly copying the body language, gestures, or posture of the person you are interacting with.
*If two people are subconcously mirroring, that means they are maintaining “congruence”

Proven Effect: Research has shown that mirroring can build rapport and increase likability. When you mirror someone’s nonverbal cues, it creates a sense of connection and helps the other person feel more comfortable with you.

Application: In conversations, pay attention to the other person’s body language and subtly adopt similar gestures, posture, or movements. For example, if the person leans forward, you might lean forward slightly as well, signaling empathy and alignment.

Question 100

Importance of using “Power Poses” to prep for encounters like job interviews or dates

Answer 100

What it does: Power poses involve adopting expansive, dominant postures that take up space (e.g., standing with your feet apart, hands on hips).

Proven Effect: Research by Amy Cuddy and colleagues found that power poses can increase feelings of confidence and change how others perceive you. People who adopt power poses are often seen as more dominant, confident, and capable.

Application: Before important meetings, presentations, or negotiations, practice power poses (e.g., standing tall with your arms outstretched or placing your hands on your hips) to project confidence. These postures can influence both your internal state and others’ perceptions of you.

Question 101

Importance of the Duchenne Smile

Answer 101

What it does: Genuine smiling, also known as a Duchenne smile (involving both the mouth and eye muscles), signals warmth, positivity, and approachability.

Proven Effect: Studies show that people who smile genuinely are perceived as more friendly, trustworthy, and competent. A genuine smile creates a positive emotional response and can influence how people feel about you.

Application: When interacting with others, smile authentically to convey warmth and friendliness. Smiling in response to others’ comments or jokes can help build rapport and create a positive social environment.

Question 102

Importance of controlled breathing

Answer 102

What it does: Controlled breathing can help manage stress and create an impression of calm and control.

Proven Effect: Research in stress management shows that deep, controlled breathing can help regulate emotions and enhance perceptions of composure and self-assurance. Shallow or erratic breathing can signal anxiety or stress.

Application: Before important interactions, practice controlled breathing techniques to maintain a calm and confident demeanor. This can help you project a composed image in high-pressure situations.

Question 103

Proven signs of discomfort

Answer 103

Pierced lips (the more lips you can see, the more comfortable the person is)

Low Hand-Proximity, or hands touching body

Shifting seat position

Question 104

Hand TP

Answer 104

Description: The “Hand TP” (or “tent position”) involves bringing the fingertips of both hands together while keeping the palms apart, forming a tent-like shape.
Meaning in NVC: This gesture is often associated with thoughtfulness, reflection, or deliberation. It signals that the person is thinking carefully about something or is in a contemplative state. It is seen as a subtle sign of control or composure.
Perception: Individuals who use the “Hand TP” are perceived as analytical, focused, and deep in thought. This gesture is often used in professional settings where someone wants to convey that they are considering a problem or are in control of a discussion.
Application: Commonly used in leadership or negotiation contexts, this gesture suggests a reflective or problem-solving stance.

Question 105

Hand Steeple

Answer 105

Description: The “Hand Steeple” is similar to the “Hand TP,” but here the fingertips are pressed together while the hands form an upward-pointing triangle, much like the steeple of a church.

Meaning in NVC: This gesture is a powerful display of confidence and self-assuredness. It is often used by individuals in leadership positions or during negotiations to express authority and control over a situation. It suggests that the person feels confident in their ideas or position.

Perception: People who use the “Hand Steeple” are often perceived as assertive, confident, and in control. It signals that the speaker is convinced of their position and may even subtly imply superiority or dominance in certain contexts.

Application: Commonly observed in high-status individuals or during high-stakes conversations. It can convey dominance without being overtly aggressive, making it useful in business or formal discussions.

Question 106

Arms Akimbo

Answer 106

Description: “Arms Akimbo” involves placing both hands on the hips with the elbows flaring outward.

Meaning in NVC: This gesture is associated with dominance, assertiveness, and sometimes aggression. It is often used to signal a stance of readiness, confidence, or control. In some contexts, it can also convey defiance or aggression, depending on the intensity and situation.

Perception: People who adopt this posture are often seen as confident, commanding, or even confrontational. It can be perceived positively in situations requiring leadership or authority, but negatively in contexts where it might come across as challenging or intimidating.

Application: This gesture is frequently observed in situations of confrontation or when someone wants to assert dominance. It can be used effectively in leadership to demonstrate readiness and authority but should be used cautiously to avoid coming across as too aggressive.

Question 107

Recursive relationships in NVC

Answer 107

Our nonverbal messages change the way that we feel about ourselves

(our bodies influence our minds via hormones)
o Power hormone combo is low cortisol and more testosterone (triggered by power poses)
o The environment and the circumstances influence testosterone (examples, roles and responsibilities at work changing)

Question 108

Innate Nonverbal Behaviors

Answer 108

1) Universality of Facial Expressions:

Research: The work of Paul Ekman in the 1960s demonstrated that certain facial expressions are universal across cultures, suggesting that they are biologically innate. Ekman identified six basic emotions—happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise—that are expressed similarly across different cultures, even in isolated groups with little to no exposure to Western media.
Example: A smile is universally recognized as a sign of happiness, and a frown is associated with sadness. These expressions are considered to be biologically hardwired into human behavior.
Conclusion: Research shows that basic facial expressions of emotion are innate, meaning they are biologically programmed and not learned through cultural exposure.

2) Infant Research:

Research: Studies on infants suggest that some nonverbal behaviors are present from birth. Newborns, for example, exhibit certain facial expressions and gestures, such as crying when distressed or smiling when pleased, which are seen even in blind infants who have never observed these behaviors.
Example: Newborns smile in response to pleasurable stimuli, and they instinctively make eye contact with caregivers, suggesting that these behaviors are innate.
Conclusion: Nonverbal behaviors such as smiling, eye contact, and crying in response to specific stimuli appear to be biologically innate and not learned through imitation or socialization.

3) Gestures and Basic Reflexes:

Research: Some gestures, particularly those associated with survival, are seen as innate. For example, the startle reflex—where individuals flinch or raise their arms to protect themselves in response to a loud sound or sudden movement—is a biologically ingrained reaction to danger.
Example: People from all cultures will instinctively shield their eyes or turn their head when an object is thrown toward them.
Conclusion: Reflexive protective gestures are innate responses hardwired into humans for survival purposes.

Question 109

Learned Nonverbal Behaviors

Answer 109

1) Cultural Variation in Gestures:

Research: Gestures that have specific meanings, such as hand signals or postures, are largely culturally learned. Research by anthropologists and psychologists shows that the meanings assigned to certain gestures vary widely across cultures.
Example: The thumbs-up gesture means “good” or “okay” in many Western countries but can be seen as offensive in other cultures, such as parts of the Middle East. Similarly, eye contact is interpreted differently across cultures—while it is considered a sign of confidence in some Western cultures, it can be seen as rude or confrontational in others.
Conclusion: Gestures and certain nonverbal behaviors related to communication norms are largely learned through social and cultural conditioning.

2) Social Learning of Body Language:

Research: Albert Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that nonverbal behaviors, like many other social behaviors, are learned through imitation and observation. Children observe the body language and nonverbal cues of those around them (e.g., parents, peers) and adopt similar behaviors in their own social interactions.
Example: A child growing up in a culture where bowing is a sign of respect will learn to bow in appropriate situations, while a child in another culture might learn to shake hands.
Conclusion: Nonverbal behaviors such as postures, gestures, and social displays of politeness are largely learned through observation and imitation within specific cultural contexts.

3) Adaptation to Social Norms:

Research: Nonverbal communication is often shaped by social norms and expectations. Research in communication studies shows that individuals adapt their nonverbal behaviors to fit the social or professional environments they are in, suggesting that these behaviors are learned over time.
Example: In formal settings, individuals may adopt more controlled and restrained gestures, while in informal settings, they may use more relaxed body language. Social norms also influence how much personal space is considered appropriate, and these norms vary between cultures.
Conclusion: Social and cultural norms significantly influence how people learn and adjust their nonverbal behaviors, making many of these behaviors learned through societal conditioning.

Question 110

Oculesics

Answer 110

The study of eye behavior, eye contact, eye movement, and the functions of eye behavior

Eye behavior (especially during a conversation) is EXTREMELY culturally and contextually dependent
An American woman on drinking coffee with her partner may have different eye behavior than a Japanese man giving a speech

Question 111

Seven Main Eye Behaviors

Answer 111

1) CLEMS: Involuntary lateral eye movements associated with cognitive processing, such as recalling memories or solving problems.
2) Mutual Gaze: Two people looking directly at each other, important for engagement and bonding, particularly in childhood development.
3) One-Side Look: A glance in another’s direction without making direct eye contact, often signaling interest or curiosity.
4) Gaze Aversion: Intentionally looking away, often used to avoid conflict, discomfort, or engagement, especially during difficult situations.
5) Gaze Omission: Unintentional lack of eye contact, not due to avoidance but distraction or lack of awareness.
6) Civil Inattention: Acknowledging someone’s presence without direct engagement, a polite way to respect personal space in public settings.
7) Staring: Prolonged, direct gaze, often seen as intrusive or intense, and can signal anything from curiosity to aggression.

Question 112

CLEMS

Answer 112

Definition: Conjugate Lateral Eye Movements (CLEMS) are involuntary lateral (side-to-side) movements of the eyes that occur when a person is engaged in cognitive processing. The direction of the eye movement is thought to correspond to the type of mental activity (e.g., recalling a memory, processing information).
Explanation: CLEMS are typically associated with internal cognitive functions such as problem-solving, memory recall, or decision-making. These movements are involuntary and occur without the person’s conscious awareness.
Example: A person might move their eyes to the left when recalling a past event or to the right when trying to think of an answer to a new question. These movements are subtle and reflect the brain’s processing of different types of information.

Question 113

Mutual Gaze

Answer 113

Definition: Mutual gaze occurs when two people look directly at each other’s eyes simultaneously, creating a connection through eye contact. It is a key aspect of human interaction and is crucial for social bonding and communication.
Explanation: Mutual gaze is an essential part of relationship building and social interaction, and it plays a critical role in childhood development, helping children learn social cues, trust, and emotional regulation. In adults, mutual gaze is used to express interest, engagement, or affection.
Example: During a conversation, if two people maintain mutual gaze, it signifies that they are engaged and interested in each other. Mutual gaze is often seen between parents and infants as they bond.

Question 114

One-sided look

Answer 114

Definition: A one-side look refers to a person gazing in the direction of another person without actually making eye contact. This type of gaze signals a level of attention but does not establish direct visual connection.
Explanation: The one-side look is often used in situations where a person is observing another from a distance or in a more passive way. It can suggest interest or curiosity but without the direct intensity of mutual gaze.
Example: In a social setting, someone might glance in the direction of another person to observe them or assess their actions, but without the person being aware of the look. This can often happen in a crowded room.

Question 115

Gaze Aversion

Answer 115

Definition: Gaze aversion occurs when a person intentionally looks away from another person, often as a way to avoid eye contact during a difficult or uncomfortable situation, such as during a conflict or when they are nervous.
Explanation: Gaze aversion is a deliberate behavior used to manage interactions, typically to avoid confrontation, discomfort, or to disengage from a conversation. It is often used during situations where making direct eye contact could heighten tension or anxiety.
Example: In an argument, one person might look away to avoid eye contact with the other, signaling either a refusal to engage or discomfort with the situation.

Question 116

Gaze Omission

Answer 116

Definition: Gaze omission refers to situations where a person does not make eye contact, but this lack of eye contact is not intentional. The individual is not avoiding eye contact on purpose but is simply not focused on it or aware of the need to engage visually.
Explanation: Unlike gaze aversion, which is deliberate, gaze omission occurs unintentionally. This can happen in scenarios where the person is distracted, preoccupied, or simply unaware of social cues related to eye contact.
Example: A person might fail to make eye contact with someone while they are focused on reading or thinking deeply, without any intention of avoiding interaction.

Question 117

Civil Inattention

Answer 117

Definition: Civil inattention refers to a social behavior where individuals acknowledge each other’s presence in a shared space but choose to avoid engaging in direct interaction. This is typically done to maintain social norms and respect personal boundaries.
Explanation: Civil inattention involves brief, polite recognition of another person’s presence, often followed by an intentional avoidance of further eye contact or interaction. It helps people navigate social spaces without appearing rude or intrusive.
Example: When passing someone on the street, two people might briefly make eye contact or glance at each other, then look away, signaling that they recognize each other’s presence but do not wish to engage in conversation.

Question 118

Staring

Answer 118

Definition: Staring is the act of looking directly at someone or something for an extended period of time without interruption. This prolonged gaze can be perceived in different ways depending on the context.
Explanation: Staring is often interpreted as intense or intrusive, and it can make the person being stared at feel uncomfortable. In some cases, staring may convey aggression, dominance, or strong interest, but it can also signal curiosity or confusion.
Example: Someone might stare at a person in shock or surprise, or they might stare at a stranger in a social setting, which can make the other person feel uneasy or self-conscious.

Question 119

Vocalics

Answer 119

Refers to the modulation of voice in terms of qualities like pitch, tone, and volume.

Question 120

Paralinguistics

Answer 120

• Non-spoken component of speech creating further meaning from verbal statements
• Includes vocalics but also other nonverbal vocal elements, such as pauses, sighs, and nonverbal sounds, that influence communication.

Question 121

NCV perspective on silence

Answer 121

NOT the same thing as not communicating

From the functional perspective: silence can help us: establish distance, gather thoughts, sometimes done for emphasis (pausing after asking a thought provoking question)

Question 122

Pausing v. silence

Answer 122

Pausing (less than 3 seconds)

Silence (more than 3 seconds)

Question 123

Aspects of silence

Answer 123

1) Can be requested using signage
2) Brain reacts to the start of silence the same way as it reacts to speech (Brain creates internal interpretations of sound)
3) Can promote cell development in the hipocampus

Question 124

Role of vocalics in interaction management

Answer 124

1. Turn maintaining: volume increase, “vocalized pauses”, increased rate of speech
2. Turn yielding: pitch raise when asking a question
3. Turn requesting: using a small sound to indicate you are about to speak
4. Turn denying: typically silence

Question 125

NVC definition of sarcasm

Answer 125

Tone contradicts the message

Extremely culturally dependent

Involves two levels of skill:
Part 1: Understanding Sarcasm
Part 2: Using Sarcasm

The better you know the interaction partner

Question 126

Key aspects of Tone

Answer 126

Emotion: Tone conveys the speaker’s emotional state, such as happiness, anger, sadness, or excitement. For example, a cheerful tone communicates positivity, while an irritated tone may signal frustration.

Attitude: Tone can reveal the speaker’s attitude towards the topic or listener. For instance, a sarcastic tone might indicate disdain or mockery, while a respectful tone suggests politeness or deference.

Intensity: The intensity of tone can vary, from soft and gentle to loud and harsh. This variation can indicate the speaker’s emotional engagement or level of urgency.

Pitch: The pitch of the voice (high or low) is an element of tone that influences how a message is interpreted. A higher pitch may indicate nervousness or excitement, while a lower pitch can convey seriousness or calmness.

Volume: The loudness or softness of speech affects tone. Speaking softly can suggest confidentiality or intimacy, while speaking loudly might convey enthusiasm or anger.

Question 127

NVC definition of Tone

Answer 127

Refers to the quality of voice used to convey emotion, attitude, or emphasis during communication. It reflects how something is said rather than the actual words spoken, and it can significantly affect how a message is perceived. Tone is a key aspect of vocalics, which focuses on the use of voice as a form of nonverbal communication.

Question 128

Accent

Answer 128

Definition: An accent refers to the way words are pronounced in a particular language. It’s influenced by geography, social group, or a person’s native language. It involves variations in intonation, stress, pitch, and sound production but does not affect the vocabulary or grammar of the language.

Key Features: An accent influences the phonetic aspects of speech, such as how vowels and consonants are articulated and how stress and rhythm are used in sentences.

Example: A person from New York might have a different accent from someone from Texas, even though both speak English. Similarly, a French speaker learning English might have a “French accent” when speaking English due to differences in pronunciation.

Answer 129

Definition: Refers to the way different words (associated with particular regions or social groups) can have different meetings. Speakers of different dialects may use distinct words or expressions while still speaking the same language.

Key Features: A dialect includes not just pronunciation (like an accent) but also differences in the words and grammar that people use. It is a more comprehensive form of language variation than an accent.

Example: In the United States, American English has many dialects, such as Southern English, African American Vernacular English (AAVE), and Appalachian English. These dialects involve differences in both pronunciation and word usage. For example, in the Southern U.S., people might say “y’all” instead of “you all” (vocabulary) and pronounce words differently (accent).

Question 130

Neurological function of silence

Answer 130

A couple of hours of silence produces new braincells in the hippocampus (brains memory center)

Actually improves intelligence

Silence triggers self-reflection, and improves positivity

Question 131

Proxemics

Answer 131

The study of how we use and communicate space

Question 132

Territoriality

Answer 132

Refers to the way individuals or groups use and defend physical space or personal boundaries to communicate ownership, control, or status. It involves the establishment of personal or group space that is perceived as being under one’s control, and it plays a significant role in regulating social interactions

Question 133

Invasion and Defense of Territory

Answer 133

Territoriality also involves responses to invasion or violation of personal space or boundaries. People may react to perceived intrusions with discomfort, aggression, or defensive behaviors, depending on how important the territory is to them.

Example: If someone sits too close to you on a nearly empty bus, you might shift away or make nonverbal cues (e.g., avoiding eye contact) to signal discomfort.

Markers labels defensive displays tenure

Negative encroachment (violation, invasion, contamination, blocking)

Reactions to invasion (withdrawl, insolation (via markers), turf defense, linguistic pollution)

Question 134

Interpersonal Distance

Answer 134

Affects the distance we put between ourselves and others

Question 135

Types of interpersonal distance

Answer 135

1) Intimate (18” – 0”, touching)
2) Casual personal (4’ to 18”)
3) Socio-consultive zones (8’ -4’)
4) Public-personal zone (beyond 8’)

Question 136

Importance of Territoriality in NVC

Answer 136

Control and Power: Territoriality is closely linked to control and power dynamics in social interactions. People often establish and defend territory to assert dominance or maintain social order.

Cultural Norms: Different cultures have varying norms around territoriality and personal space. What is considered a violation of territorial boundaries in one culture may be seen as acceptable in another.

Social Identity: Territoriality can also be an expression of social identity or group membership, where groups claim and protect spaces to establish boundaries between “insiders” and “outsiders.”

Question 137

Distancing/Withdrawl

Answer 137

Explanation: One of the most immediate and common reactions to territorial invasion is physical distancing or moving away from the invader. This is an attempt to re-establish a comfortable amount of space.

Example: On public transportation, if someone sits too close, the person might shift in their seat, lean away, or even stand up and move to a different seat.

Research Support: Studies by Sommer (1969) on personal space found that people tend to move away or adjust their position when someone intrudes on their space, especially in public or shared environments.

Question 138

Turf Defense/Blocking

Answer 138

Explanation: Some individuals react by directly defending their territory, either by physically blocking access or reclaiming the space through assertive actions.

Example: In a crowded setting, a person might reposition themselves or create a physical barrier to prevent further encroachment, such as spreading their arms to block someone from moving closer.

Research Support: Altman’s (1975) research on privacy and personal space shows that territorial defense is a common reaction when individuals feel their control over a space is being challenged.

Question 139

Marking as a response to invasion

Answer 139

Explanation: People often react to invasions by reinforcing their territorial claim through markers or barriers, either using physical objects or nonverbal gestures to reclaim space.

Example: A person may place their bag or personal items on a chair to signal that the space is occupied, or they may spread their arms or legs in a more expansive posture to take up more space.

Research Support: Research by Goffman (1971) and Altman (1975) indicates that people use personal objects or postures to mark their territory, especially when they feel their space is being threatened.

Question 140

Density

Answer 140

Definition: Density refers to the physical condition of the number of people or objects within a given space. It is a quantifiable measure of how many individuals or things occupy a certain area, such as how many people are in a room or how closely packed a neighborhood is. Density is an objective factor.

Key Characteristics:
1) Measured mathematically: The number of people per square foot, per acre, or per square mile, for example.
2) Does not inherently cause stress or discomfort: High density simply means that there are a lot of people or objects in a space, but it does not automatically lead to negative feelings.

Example: A train car packed with 50 people is considered high density because of the large number of people in a small space.

Question 141

Crowding

Answer 141

Definition: Crowding refers to the psychological perception of too many people or things in a space, leading to feelings of discomfort, stress, or lack of control. It is a subjective experience, depending on how individuals feel about the amount of space available to them. Crowding occurs when a person feels that their personal space or privacy is being invaded due to the high density of people or objects.

Key Characteristics:
1) Subjective experience: What feels crowded to one person may not feel crowded to another, depending on their tolerance for closeness or personal space needs.
2) Causes discomfort: Crowding typically leads to negative emotional responses, such as stress, frustration, or anxiety, especially if people feel they cannot control or escape the situation.

Example: If the same train car with 50 people makes someone feel anxious or trapped, that person is experiencing crowding, even though the physical space (density) hasn’t changed.

Question 142

Relationship between nonverbal behavior and surroundings/environment

Answer 142

We subconsciously respond to five aspect of our environment:

1) “Attractiveness”
2) Color
3) Lighting
4) Temperature
5) Olfactics

Question 143

Factors in the attractiveness of an environment

Answer 143

1) Encouragement for social interaction
2) Cleanliness
3) Observance of cultural norms
4) Personalization/Identity
5) Accoustics/Volume
6) Natural Elements (plants, natural light, etc)
7) Spacial Layout
8) Physical Comfort
9) Aesthetics/Visual Appeal

Question 144

High-context vs. Low-context Communication

Answer 144

Highly culturally dependent

Definition: This concept, developed by Edward T. Hall, refers to how much communication relies on explicit verbal messages (low-context) versus implicit nonverbal cues and context (high-context).
Key Differences:
High-context cultures (e.g., Japan, China, Middle East) rely heavily on the context of the conversation, shared knowledge, and nonverbal cues to convey meaning. The communication tends to be indirect and subtle.
Low-context cultures (e.g., U.S., Germany, Australia) rely on explicit verbal communication, where messages are direct, clear, and detailed, with less reliance on contextual or nonverbal cues.
Example: In a high-context culture like Japan, people may avoid saying “no” directly, instead using nonverbal signals or indirect language to indicate disagreement. In a low-context culture like the U.S., people tend to express disagreement more directly.