Identity, Courtship, & Couple Dynamics (US) Flashcards
Moris’ Twelve Steps to the US courtship ritual
eye to body
eye to eye
voice to voice
hand to hand
arm to shoulder
arm to waist
mouth to mouth
hand to head
hand to body
mouth to breast
hand to genitals
genitals to genitals
Courtship v. Quasicourtship
Phases of Quasicourtship
Albert Scheflen
Key Focus: Scheflen focused on non-verbal communication in social and therapeutic contexts, with particular attention to quasicourtship cues—non-verbal behaviors that signal attraction, readiness for interaction, or openness, but not necessarily romantic intent. He explored how men and women unconsciously use body language to communicate interest, affiliation, or dominance, particularly in everyday interactions.
Gender Differences: Scheflen’s analysis of male and female behavior was grounded in how they exhibit non-verbal signals of readiness and openness in various social settings. He highlighted how women may use affiliative behaviors like preening and smiling to signal openness and friendliness, while men may display dominance cues through posture and body positioning to assert authority or attract attention.
Unique Contribution: Scheflen emphasized the ritualistic and subconscious nature of non-verbal behaviors, including how both genders use body language to navigate complex social and power dynamics, even in non-romantic contexts. His analysis of quasicourtship behavior focuses on how both genders use signals that resemble courtship behaviors but are used for broader social purposes, including bonding and affiliation.
Key Work: Scheflen, A. E. (1972). Body Language and the Social Order: Communication as Behavioral Control.
Ray Birdwhistell
Key Focus: Birdwhistell is credited with founding kinesics, the study of body movement and gestures as a form of communication. His research looked at how people use body language within specific social and cultural contexts. Birdwhistell argued that body language, like spoken language, is learned and culturally specific rather than universal.
Gender Differences: Birdwhistell’s work on male and female behavior emphasized the cultural shaping of gendered body language. He explored how societal expectations influence the way men and women gesture, stand, sit, or use facial expressions. For example, he noted that men might be socialized to take up more space or use more expansive gestures to signal dominance, while women might be taught to take up less space and use more restrained gestures.
Unique Contribution: Birdwhistell was particularly interested in how non-verbal communication is influenced by culture and social learning, rather than being purely instinctual. His work suggests that differences in male and female behavior are largely shaped by societal norms and vary significantly across different cultures.
Key Work: Birdwhistell, R. L. (1970). Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication
Desmond Morris
Key Focus: Desmond Morris approached male and female behavior from an ethological and evolutionary perspective. He studied human behavior by comparing it to the behavior of animals, particularly primates, and explored how human non-verbal communication evolved to fulfill biological and social needs. Morris was particularly interested in how body language reflects underlying evolutionary drives related to reproduction, dominance, and survival.
Gender Differences: Morris highlighted biologically rooted differences in male and female behavior, emphasizing that much of what we consider non-verbal communication is rooted in innate, evolutionary behaviors. He suggested that men and women have evolved different body language behaviors based on reproductive strategies, with men more likely to display dominance through expansive postures and assertive gestures, while women may use body language to display attractiveness and signal reproductive fitness (e.g., grooming behaviors or submissive gestures).
Unique Contribution: Morris’ work is grounded in ethology, drawing direct parallels between human non-verbal communication and the behavior of animals. He argued that many gender differences in behavior stem from evolutionary pressures, which shape how men and women signal dominance, attraction, or submission in social and mating contexts.
Key Work: Morris, D. (1967). The Naked Ape: A Zoologist’s Study of the Human Animal.
Comparison of Morris, Birdwhistell, and Scheflen
Scheflen: Focuses on the subconscious and ritualistic nature of body language, with an emphasis on how men and women signal readiness for social interaction and how these behaviors mimic courtship rituals.
Birdwhistell: Takes a cultural and social lens, arguing that gendered body language is largely shaped by societal norms and learned behaviors, which vary across cultures.
Morris: Emphasizes the biological and evolutionary basis of gendered non-verbal behavior, suggesting that these behaviors are deeply rooted in human evolutionary history and tied to reproduction and survival strategies.
Advantages of Immediacy
1) Increased Perceived Attractiveness: Immediacy behaviors often enhance how attractive someone appears to others. Behaviors like eye contact, smiling, and positive body language can create an inviting atmosphere, which makes the individual seem more appealing and approachable.
Research Example: Studies have shown that people rate individuals who use more immediacy behaviors (e.g., smiling, leaning forward) as more attractive and likable during social interactions .
2) Facilitates Emotional Connection: Immediacy helps build an emotional bond by signaling that the person is interested and engaged. In courtship, this can create a sense of mutual interest and deepen feelings of intimacy, as it makes both parties feel more connected.
3) Signals Openness and Availability: By reducing physical and psychological distance, immediacy signals that a person is open to interaction and possibly to further romantic or emotional engagement. This can accelerate the progression of relationships and increase the likelihood of reciprocal attraction.
4) Increases Perceived Confidence: Immediacy behaviors, such as open posture and direct eye contact, are often interpreted as signs of confidence and self-assurance, which are attractive traits in a courtship context.
5) Encourages Reciprocal Interest: When one person uses immediacy behaviors, it often prompts the other person to reciprocate, creating a feedback loop that enhances mutual attraction. It sets a positive tone for further interaction and relationship development.
Disadvantages of Immediacy
1) Overuse Can Be Perceived as Aggressive or Overbearing: Excessive use of immediacy behaviors, especially in the early stages of courtship, can come across as too intense or invasive. For example, standing too close or maintaining excessive eye contact can make the other person feel uncomfortable or pressured.
Research Example: Studies suggest that too much immediacy, especially in a first encounter, can be interpreted as a violation of personal space or overly assertive behavior .
2) Cultural Differences in Immediacy: Immediacy behaviors vary greatly across cultures. What might be seen as warm and engaging in one culture (e.g., close proximity and direct eye contact) could be seen as intrusive or inappropriate in another. This can lead to misunderstandings in intercultural courtship settings.
Example: In some East Asian cultures, direct eye contact can be seen as confrontational or inappropriate in certain contexts, while in Western cultures, it is often seen as a sign of confidence and engagement.
3) Potential for Misinterpretation:
THIS IS A BIG ONE
Immediacy can sometimes be misunderstood as romantic interest when none is intended. For example, friendly gestures like smiling or leaning in might be interpreted as flirtation, which can lead to confusion in social interactions where the intentions are not clear.
4) Imbalance in Immediacy Behaviors: If one person in a courtship situation displays high immediacy (e.g., leaning in, smiling) and the other does not reciprocate, it can create an awkward imbalance. The person using immediacy may appear over-invested or too eager, while the other may seem uninterested or distant, leading to a mismatch in perceptions of attraction.
5) Risk of Invading Personal Space: Some immediacy behaviors, such as moving physically closer or using touch, can cross personal boundaries if not done carefully. This can lead to discomfort or rejection if the other person is not ready for that level of closeness.
Attachment Theory
Key Idea: Developed by John Bowlby and later expanded by Mary Ainsworth, attachment theory explains how early childhood relationships with caregivers shape our expectations and behaviors in romantic relationships. Attachment styles are typically categorized as secure, anxious, avoidant, or disorganized.
Application to Couples: In adult romantic relationships, individuals with a secure attachment style tend to form healthy, trusting relationships. Those with anxious or avoidant attachment styles may struggle with intimacy, leading to patterns of clinginess, insecurity, or emotional distancing. Couples with mismatched attachment styles may experience difficulties in maintaining a stable relationship.
Source: Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Social Exchange Theory
Key Idea: Social Exchange Theory, developed by George Homans and expanded by Thibaut and Kelley, posits that relationships are based on a cost-benefit analysis. People seek to maximize rewards (such as companionship, affection, and support) while minimizing costs (such as conflict, stress, or time commitment). The stability of a relationship depends on the balance between the costs and rewards.
Application to Couples: Couples are likely to stay together if both partners feel that the relationship provides more benefits than costs. However, if the perceived costs begin to outweigh the rewards, the relationship may face challenges or dissolve.
Source: Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The Social Psychology of Groups. John Wiley & Sons.
Equity Theory
Key Idea: Equity Theory, developed by J. Stacy Adams, suggests that satisfaction in a relationship is determined by how fair or equitable each partner perceives the relationship to be. Individuals feel content when their inputs (e.g., effort, time, resources) are proportional to the outcomes they receive (e.g., love, support, shared resources). Perceived inequity can lead to dissatisfaction.
Application to Couples: When one partner feels they are putting more into the relationship than they are receiving, resentment may build. Similarly, over-benefited partners may feel guilt. For a relationship to be successful, both partners need to feel that the relationship is fair and balanced.
Source: Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in Social Exchange. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology.
Triangular Theory of Love
Key Idea: Proposed by Robert Sternberg, the Triangular Theory of Love suggests that love has three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Different combinations of these components produce different types of love, such as romantic love (intimacy + passion), companionate love (intimacy + commitment), or consummate love (intimacy + passion + commitment).
Application to Couples: The theory explains how relationships evolve over time. For example, passion may be intense at the beginning of a relationship but may wane over time, while commitment and intimacy can strengthen. Understanding these components helps couples navigate changes in their relationship dynamics.
Source: Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A Triangular Theory of Love. Psychological Review.
Investment Model
Key Idea: Developed by Caryl Rusbult, the Investment Model focuses on the factors that contribute to relationship commitment and stability. The model suggests that three factors predict relationship commitment: satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size (i.e., the resources a partner has put into the relationship, such as time, emotional energy, or shared property).
Application to Couples: Couples who are highly satisfied, have few appealing alternatives, and have made significant investments in the relationship are more likely to remain committed. Even when satisfaction decreases, the size of the investments can keep partners together.
Source: Rusbult, C. E. (1980). Commitment and Satisfaction in Romantic Associations: A Test of the Investment Model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.
Interdependence Theory
Key Idea: Interdependence Theory, developed by Thibaut and Kelley, looks at how partners in a relationship affect each other’s outcomes. It focuses on the mutual dependence of partners, where each person’s decisions, actions, and satisfaction are influenced by the other. The theory introduces concepts like comparison levels (CL) and comparison level for alternatives (CLalt), which describe how partners evaluate the relationship against their expectations and potential alternatives.
Application to Couples: Couples stay together when both partners feel that their outcomes in the relationship are better than they would be alone or with someone else. Higher levels of interdependence lead to greater commitment.
Source: Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The Social Psychology of Groups. John Wiley & Sons.
Gottman Method and the “Four Horsemen”
Key Idea: John Gottman’s research on couples focuses on predicting relationship success or failure based on communication patterns. Gottman identified the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse”—criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling—as behaviors that predict relationship breakdown.
Application to Couples: Couples who consistently engage in these negative communication patterns are more likely to experience dissatisfaction and divorce. However, Gottman also emphasizes the importance of repair attempts and positive interactions to maintain a healthy relationship.
Source: Gottman, J. M., & Levenson, R. W. (1992). Marital Processes Predictive of Later Dissolution: Behavior, Physiology, and Health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
The Dual Process Model of Relationship Maintenance
Key Idea: The Dual Process Model suggests that relationship maintenance behaviors can be proactive (actions taken to strengthen the relationship before problems arise) or reactive (actions taken to address problems once they occur). These processes help partners sustain the relationship through changes and challenges.
Application to Couples: Successful couples engage in both proactive behaviors, such as expressing appreciation and making time for each other, and reactive behaviors, such as resolving conflicts and managing stress, to maintain a healthy and stable relationship.
Source: Dindia, K., & Canary, D. J. (1993). Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives on Maintaining Relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships.
Self-Expansion Theory
Key Idea: Self-Expansion Theory, developed by Arthur Aron and colleagues, suggests that individuals are motivated to grow and expand their sense of self. Romantic relationships provide opportunities for this self-expansion by introducing new experiences, ideas, and perspectives. Partners contribute to each other’s personal growth, which can strengthen the relationship.
Application to Couples: Couples who continue to grow together by engaging in novel and exciting activities are more likely to maintain strong, fulfilling relationships. Stagnation, where one or both partners feel that they are no longer growing or benefiting from the relationship, can lead to dissatisfaction.
Source: Aron, A., & Aron, E. N. (1986). Love and the Expansion of Self: Understanding Attraction and Satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Matching Hypothesis
Key Idea: The Matching Hypothesis, proposed by Elaine Hatfield and colleagues, suggests that people are more likely to form and maintain romantic relationships with individuals who are similar to them in terms of physical attractiveness. The theory posits that, while individuals may desire highly attractive partners, they tend to choose partners whose attractiveness is comparable to their own to avoid rejection and maintain relationship stability.
Application to Couples: Couples who are similar in physical attractiveness may experience greater satisfaction and stability, as they may feel more equal in the relationship. This similarity can reduce insecurity and jealousy, leading to a more balanced and harmonious partnership. The hypothesis also implies that mismatched couples (in terms of attractiveness) may experience greater relational strain due to perceived inequalities.
Source: Walster, E., Aronson, V., Abrahams, D., & Rottmann, L. (1966). Importance of Physical Attractiveness in Dating Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
John Bowlby
Significant Contribution: Bowlby’s most influential contribution is Attachment Theory, which posits that early relationships with caregivers shape emotional development and behavior in later relationships. He introduced the idea that secure, anxious, and avoidant attachment styles emerge from these early interactions and impact interpersonal relationships throughout life.
Influence: Attachment Theory profoundly influenced not only developmental psychology but also social psychology, as it explains adult romantic attachment patterns. It laid the groundwork for research on how childhood experiences affect emotional bonds in adulthood.
Key Publication: Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. Basic Books.
Mary Ainsworth
Significant Contribution: Ainsworth expanded Bowlby’s work with the Strange Situation experiment, identifying the three major attachment styles: secure, anxious, and avoidant. Her empirical research provided concrete evidence for Bowlby’s theoretical framework.
Influence: Ainsworth’s identification of specific attachment styles was foundational for understanding adult romantic relationships and interpersonal dynamics. It became a central theory in relationship psychology, influencing research on parent-child interactions and romantic bonds.
Key Publication: Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
George Homans
Significant Contribution: Homans developed Social Exchange Theory, which suggests that human relationships are based on the exchange of rewards and costs. People seek to maximize rewards (like affection or approval) and minimize costs (like conflict or time commitment).
Influence: Social Exchange Theory laid the foundation for numerous theories in relationship and group dynamics, including interpersonal relationships, organizational behavior, and social networks. It revolutionized the understanding of human interaction as a form of economic exchange.
Key Publication: Homans, G. C. (1958). Social Behavior as Exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63(6), 597-606.
John Thibaut & Harold Kelley
Significant Contribution: Thibaut and Kelley are best known for developing Interdependence Theory, which examines how the mutual dependence of partners affects relationship stability. They introduced concepts such as comparison levels (CL) and comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) to explain how people evaluate their relationships.
Influence: This theory became a cornerstone for understanding relationship satisfaction and commitment. It also led to the development of models that explain decision-making processes in relationships and how partners balance personal needs with mutual dependence.
Key Publication: Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The Social Psychology of Groups. John Wiley & Sons.
J. Stacy Adams
Significant Contribution: Adams developed Equity Theory, which posits that individuals seek fairness and equity in relationships. Satisfaction arises when their inputs (effort, resources) are balanced with their outcomes (rewards, recognition). Inequity leads to dissatisfaction.
Influence: Equity Theory has had a profound impact on understanding both interpersonal relationships and workplace dynamics, emphasizing the importance of perceived fairness in maintaining satisfaction and reducing conflict.
Key Publication: Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in Social Exchange. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 267-299.
Robert Sternberg
Significant Contribution: Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love proposes that love consists of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Different combinations of these components result in various types of love, such as romantic love, companionate love, or consummate love.
Influence: Sternberg’s theory provided a comprehensive framework for understanding the dynamics of romantic relationships and how they evolve over time. It remains a widely referenced model for studying the complexity of love in relationships.
Key Publication: Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A Triangular Theory of Love. Psychological Review, 93(2), 119-135.
Caryl Rusbult
Significant Contribution: Rusbult developed The Investment Model, which posits that commitment in relationships is determined by three factors: satisfaction, the quality of alternatives, and investment in the relationship. The more invested individuals are, the more likely they are to remain committed, even during tough times.
Influence: The Investment Model has become one of the leading frameworks for understanding relationship stability and commitment. It explains why people stay in relationships, including those that are dissatisfying, based on the investments they have made.
Key Publication: Rusbult, C. E. (1980). Commitment and Satisfaction in Romantic Associations: A Test of the Investment Model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16(2), 172-186.
John Gottman
Significant Contribution: Gottman is best known for his research on marital stability and for identifying the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse”: criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling, which predict relationship breakdown. His work focuses on how couples can repair relationships through positive interactions and emotional attunement.
Influence: Gottman’s research revolutionized the field of relationship counseling by providing concrete, empirically-based tools to predict and improve marital stability. His work is widely used in therapeutic settings to help couples avoid negative communication patterns.
Key Publication: Gottman, J. M., & Levenson, R. W. (1992). Marital Processes Predictive of Later Dissolution: Behavior, Physiology, and Health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(2), 221-233.
Kathryn Dindia & Daniel Canary
Significant Contribution: Dindia and Canary developed the Dual Process Model, which differentiates between proactive and reactive relationship maintenance behaviors. They emphasized that couples must engage in both types of behaviors to sustain relationship health over time.
Influence: This model highlighted the importance of ongoing effort and adaptability in relationships. It is especially influential in understanding how long-term couples maintain relationship satisfaction through both preventative and problem-solving strategies.
Key Publication: Dindia, K., & Canary, D. J. (1993). Definitions and Theoretical Perspectives on Maintaining Relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10(2), 163-173.
Arthur Aron
Significant Contribution: Aron’s Self-Expansion Theory posits that individuals are motivated to grow and expand their sense of self, and romantic relationships provide a unique opportunity for personal growth through shared experiences. The more self-expansion partners experience, the more satisfying the relationship.
Influence: This theory has greatly influenced research on relationship satisfaction, emphasizing the importance of personal growth within the context of romantic relationships. It has practical implications for how couples can keep their relationships exciting and fulfilling.
Key Publication: Aron, A., & Aron, E. N. (1986). Love and the Expansion of Self: Understanding Attraction and Satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(3), 535-546.
Elaine Hatfield (formerly Walster)
Significant Contribution: Hatfield introduced the Matching Hypothesis, which argues that people are more likely to form and maintain relationships with others who are similar to them in terms of physical attractiveness. It highlights how perceived equality in attractiveness contributes to relationship stability.
Influence: The Matching Hypothesis influenced research on mate selection and attraction, offering an empirical explanation for why couples often appear to be similarly matched in physical appearance.
Key Publication: Walster, E., Aronson, V., Abrahams, D., & Rottmann, L. (1966). Importance of Physical Attractiveness in Dating Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(5), 508-516.
The “Bridge Experiment”
Dutton & Aron, (1974)
Key Researchers: Donald Dutton and Arthur Aron
Purpose: This study investigated the role of misattribution of arousal in romantic attraction. The researchers wanted to determine whether physiological arousal (from fear) could be misattributed as romantic attraction.
Method: Male participants were asked to cross either a high, swaying suspension bridge (high-arousal condition) or a low, stable bridge (low-arousal condition). After crossing the bridge, they were approached by an attractive female experimenter, who gave them her phone number for a “follow-up interview.” The researchers tracked how many participants called the experimenter afterward.
Findings: Men who crossed the high-arousal bridge were more likely to call the experimenter, suggesting that they misattributed the physiological arousal from the fear of crossing the bridge as romantic attraction.
Impact: This experiment provided key insights into how emotional and physiological arousal can influence attraction and relationship initiation, influencing research on attraction and emotion.
The “Love Lab” Studies
Gottman & Levenson (1992)
Key Researchers: John Gottman and Robert Levenson
Purpose: Gottman and Levenson conducted studies to observe physiological and behavioral patterns in couples to predict marital stability and divorce.
Method: In their “Love Lab” at the University of Washington, couples were asked to discuss areas of conflict in their relationship while being monitored for physiological responses such as heart rate, skin conductance, and facial expressions. These sessions were followed up over several years.
Findings: The researchers found that couples who displayed high physiological arousal during conflicts (e.g., elevated heart rates) and negative behaviors (such as criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling) were more likely to divorce. Gottman’s Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse emerged from this work.
Impact: This research had a profound influence on relationship counseling, offering empirical tools for predicting relationship success or failure and helping couples develop healthier communication patterns.
The “36 Questions” Experiment
Aron (1997)
Key Researcher: Arthur Aron
Purpose: This study aimed to explore how self-disclosure and intimate conversation can foster closeness and romantic connection between strangers.
Method: Pairs of strangers were asked to engage in a structured 45-minute conversation using a set of 36 increasingly personal questions. Afterward, they were asked to report how close they felt to their partner. In some cases, participants were asked to gaze into each other’s eyes for four minutes following the conversation.
Findings: The study found that self-disclosure and mutual vulnerability created a sense of closeness, even between strangers. Participants reported feeling significantly closer to their partner after the conversation, and in some cases, long-term romantic relationships developed.
Impact: The 36 Questions became widely used as a tool for increasing intimacy in both romantic and non-romantic relationships, highlighting the role of self-disclosure in fostering closeness.
The Matching Hypothesis Experiment
Walster (1966)
Key Researchers: Elaine Walster (Hatfield), Aronson, Abrahams, and Rottmann
Purpose: This experiment aimed to test the Matching Hypothesis, which suggests that people tend to pair up with others who are similar in physical attractiveness.
Method: The researchers conducted a large-scale “computer dance” at the University of Minnesota, where participants (752 male and female college students) were paired randomly with a partner for a dance. The participants’ attractiveness was rated by independent judges, and after the dance, the students were asked to rate their dates. Follow-up data was collected on whether participants wanted to see their partner again.
Findings: The results showed that participants were more likely to want to see their partner again if they were of similar attractiveness, supporting the Matching Hypothesis. However, the initial desire to see their partner was also influenced by the partner’s overall attractiveness, regardless of similarity.
Impact: This experiment confirmed the role of physical attractiveness in mate selection and led to further studies on similarity in relationships.
The “Strange Situation” Experiment
Ainsworth (1978)
Study Focus: Attachment styles in children and later application to adult relationships.
Description: Mary Ainsworth conducted the Strange Situation experiment to study attachment between infants and their caregivers. Infants were briefly separated from their mothers and then reunited. Ainsworth observed how the infants reacted to the separation and reunion, identifying three primary attachment styles: secure, anxious, and avoidant.
Key Finding: The experiment led to the understanding that early attachment styles influence adult relationships. Adults with secure attachments tend to form healthier, more stable relationships, while those with anxious or avoidant attachments may struggle with intimacy and trust.
The “Four Horsemen” Study
Gottman (1992)
Purpose: Gottman conducted longitudinal studies to identify communication patterns that predict divorce and marital satisfaction. He was particularly focused on identifying negative behaviors that contribute to relationship dissolution.
Method: Couples were observed in a lab setting as they discussed areas of conflict in their relationship. Gottman monitored their physiological responses (e.g., heart rate) and verbal and non-verbal communication behaviors. He later followed up with these couples over several years.
Findings: Gottman identified the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse”—criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling—as predictors of divorce. Of these, contempt was found to be the most destructive behavior.
Impact: This research led to the development of the Gottman Method, widely used in couples therapy to improve communication and resolve conflicts by avoiding these toxic behaviors.
Investment Model Experiment
Rusbult (1980)
Key Researcher: Caryl Rusbult
Purpose: This study aimed to test The Investment Model, which suggests that relationship commitment is determined by satisfaction, the quality of alternatives, and the level of investment in the relationship.
Method: Participants were asked to evaluate their current relationships based on the three components of the model: satisfaction, investment, and quality of alternatives. They were then tracked over time to see how these factors predicted relationship commitment and whether the relationship persisted.
Findings: The results showed that higher satisfaction, greater investment, and fewer appealing alternatives predicted stronger commitment and relationship longevity. Investments in the relationship, such as shared time, emotional energy, and resources, made partners more likely to remain committed even in the face of dissatisfaction.
Impact: The Investment Model has become one of the most widely used frameworks for understanding relationship commitment and stability, especially in long-term relationships.
The Self-Expansion Questionnaire
Aron (1992)
Key Researcher: Arthur Aron
Purpose: This study aimed to test Self-Expansion Theory, which posits that individuals are motivated to grow by incorporating aspects of their partner into their own identity, and that this expansion contributes to relationship satisfaction.
Method: Aron and his team developed the Self-Expansion Questionnaire to measure how much a person feels their partner has expanded their self-concept. Participants in romantic relationships completed the questionnaire, and their satisfaction levels were assessed.
Findings: The study found that greater feelings of self-expansion were linked to higher relationship satisfaction, suggesting that individuals who feel they are growing through their relationship are more likely to have fulfilling partnerships.
Impact: The study supported Self-Expansion Theory as a key factor in relationship satisfaction and has led to interventions that encourage couples to engage in novel, exciting activities together to enhance satisfaction.
The Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation
Sroufe (2005)
Key Researchers: Alan Sroufe and colleagues
Purpose: This long-term study followed children from infancy through adulthood to explore how early attachment patterns influence romantic relationships later in life.
Method: The study tracked participants’ attachment patterns as children, based on their interactions with their caregivers, and followed them into adolescence and adulthood to assess their romantic relationships and emotional functioning.
Findings: The study found that early secure attachment was associated with healthier, more stable romantic relationships later in life, while insecure attachment was linked to difficulties in emotional regulation and relationship stability.
Impact: The findings provided longitudinal evidence for the role of early attachment in shaping adult romantic relationships, confirming many of the key predictions of Attachment Theory.
Mere Exposure Effect Experiment
Key Researcher: Robert Zajonc (1968)
Purpose: This experiment tested the Mere Exposure Effect, which suggests that repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to increased liking for that stimulus, including in interpersonal relationships.
Method: Participants were exposed to different stimuli (such as words, faces, or objects) at varying frequencies. After repeated exposures, participants were asked to rate how much they liked the stimuli.
Findings: The study found that individuals rated stimuli they were exposed to more frequently as more likable than unfamiliar stimuli. This phenomenon applies to relationships, as frequent exposure to a person (e.g., classmates, coworkers) can increase feelings of attraction and liking.
Impact: This experiment demonstrated that familiarity can breed attraction, which has significant implications for how relationships form over time, particularly in contexts where people encounter each other frequently.
Berscheid & Walster’s Arousal-Attraction Study (1974)
Key Researchers: Ellen Berscheid and Elaine Walster (Hatfield)
Purpose: This study investigated the role of physiological arousal in the perception of romantic attraction, building on earlier work by Dutton and Aron (1974).
Method: Participants were subjected to different forms of physiological arousal (e.g., physical exercise or emotional stimuli) before meeting an attractive individual. The researchers then measured how much attraction participants felt toward that individual.
Findings: The study supported the idea that individuals can misattribute their physiological arousal (elevated heart rate, excitement) as romantic attraction toward someone they meet under those aroused conditions.
Impact: This research further demonstrated how external factors can influence perceptions of attraction and led to a greater understanding of how emotions and physical arousal contribute to the development of romantic feelings.
The “Speed Dating” Studies
Key Researchers: Eli Finkel and Paul Eastwick
Purpose: These studies examined how people make decisions about romantic partners during brief interactions, challenging traditional gender norms about attraction and partner selection.
Method: Finkel and Eastwick conducted speed-dating events where participants had a series of short “dates” (typically 4-5 minutes long) and rated their interest in each partner. The researchers then analyzed the data to determine what factors influenced attraction and relationship interest.
Findings: Contrary to traditional gender norms, the study found that when women were in the role of rotating (instead of sitting and being approached), they were just as likely as men to exhibit behaviors associated with pursuing romantic interests. This challenged long-held assumptions about gender differences in romantic initiation.
Impact: These studies provided new insights into how attraction forms in brief interactions and how gender roles may shift depending on context, such as who is perceived as the “pursuer” in romantic contexts.
Michelangelo Phenomenon Study
Drigotas (1999)
Key Researchers: Stephen Drigotas, Caryl Rusbult, and colleagues
Purpose: This study examined how romantic partners can help “sculpt” each other into their ideal selves over time, a concept known as the Michelangelo Phenomenon.
Method: Couples were asked to complete questionnaires about how they viewed their partners’ current and ideal selves. The researchers then followed the couples over time to assess whether partners’ behaviors helped each other move toward their ideal self-concepts.
Findings: The study found that when partners support and encourage each other’s personal growth toward their ideal selves, relationship satisfaction and individual well-being are enhanced. Conversely, when partners undermine each other’s personal goals, dissatisfaction increases.
Impact: The Michelangelo Phenomenon offers an important perspective on how relationships can foster personal growth and has become a widely studied concept in relationship psychology.
Propinquity Effect Study
Festinger, Schachter, & Back, (1950)
Key Researchers: Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter, and Kurt Back
Purpose: This study aimed to investigate how physical proximity influences friendship and romantic relationship formation, known as the Propinquity Effect.
Method: The researchers studied residents in a housing complex at MIT to track the formation of friendships and relationships. They recorded which residents lived closest to each other and analyzed how proximity influenced social interaction.
Findings: The study found that people who lived closer to one another (e.g., neighbors or those on the same floor) were more likely to become friends or romantic partners. The effect of proximity on relationship formation was stronger than expected, even more than shared interests or backgrounds.
Impact: The Propinquity Effect has become a foundational concept in social psychology, demonstrating how spatial factors influence interpersonal attraction and relationship formation.
Definition of Attractiveness
The degree to which we perceive another person as someone with whom we would want to associate.
Three body types
1) Endomorph (bigger, slow metabolism)
-Seen a Viserotonic (slow, laid back)
2) Mesomoph (medium structure, efficient metabolism)
-Seen as Somototonic: confident energetic, enterprising, dominant)
3) Ectomorph (lean structure, fast metabolism)
-Seen as Cerbriotonic: tense, awkward, detatched
James v. Mead v. Rogers
Functionalism v. Symbolic Interactionism
Functionalism looks at the macro-level structures of society, emphasizing how institutions and social roles maintain social order and stability.
Symbolic interactionism focuses on micro-level interactions, exploring how individuals create and interpret meaning through their daily social interactions.
Each perspective provides a different way to understand how society operates and evolves.
