Gender Differences Flashcards
Sex v. Gender
Sex - Biological and genetic difference between girls and boys, men and women. In other words, this is the biological sex we are born with. Anatomically defined by sexual organs at birth
Gender - Gender is the psychological, social, and cultural manifestations of what people perceive to be the appropriate behaviors of females and males. These manifestations may or may not be representative of a person’s biological sex.
Three factors in the differences between female non-verbal behavior and male non-verbal behavior
1) Genetics - Inherited traits, cannot be significantly altered
2) Modeling - Watching others and repeating (not to be confused with mimicry)
3) Reinforcement and conditioning - The fact that behavior that is reinforced WILL repeat
Role of genetics in forming non-verbal behaviors
Two main effects of genetic differences between men and women:
1) Posture
2) Walk/Stride
These are affected by subtle skeletal differences
They start emerging in childhood
Role of “modeling” in forming non-verbal behaviors
- Children learn how to act like “big” boys and girls by observing others in their environment and modeling their behaviors.
- Children observe the behavior of others and attempt to emulate it
*This explains cultural differences in non-verbal behavior
Role of reinforcement and conditioning in forming non-verbal behaviors
The basic premise of reinforcement theory is that behavior that is reinforced or conditioned will increase, but behavior that is not reinforced will decrease.
Genetic Differences between men and women
Men - larger shoulder span,
Women - larger breasts, wider hips
Shared but still inherited - body type
Two main effects of genetic differences between men and women
1) Posture
2) Walk/Stride
Gender roles for men in the US
Characterized by proactivity (assertive, independent, self-assured, confident, and decisive)
Dominant social style.
*This is highly dependent on culture
Gender roles for women in the US
Characterized by reactivity (sensitive, responsive to others, emotionally expressive, and supportive)
Submissive social style.
*This is highly dependent on culture
Societal view of women
Woman are judged more harshly than men (even by other women)
Societal view of men
Sex role v. Gender Role
Typical behaviors women exhibit when communicating with men (regardless of attraction)
Take up less space, shrink or pull in their bodies, tilt their heads while talking or listening, arrange or play with their hair more often than males, put hands in lap or on hips, tap hands, cross legs, cross ankles, yield space, lower eyes, blink more, and keep legs and feet together while sitting
Transgender
Definition: Transgender is an umbrella term for people whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth. For example, a person assigned female at birth who identifies and lives as a man would be considered transgender. It encompasses a wide variety of gender identities, including non-binary, genderqueer, and others.
Current Usage: The term transgender is widely accepted and respectful. It focuses on a person’s gender identity, not their physical characteristics or actions (like dressing in different gender clothing).
Transvestite
Definition: A transvestite is a person, typically a man, who dresses in clothing traditionally associated with the opposite sex (usually women’s clothing) for various reasons, such as personal comfort, performance (e.g., drag), or self-expression. Transvestitism does not imply any particular gender identity or sexual orientation.
Current Usage: The term is largely outdated and can be considered offensive by some, as it has historically been pathologized in psychological contexts. The more neutral and respectful term often used today is cross-dresser.
Transexual
Definition: Historically, transsexual referred to individuals who seek or undergo medical interventions (such as hormone replacement therapy or surgery) to align their physical bodies with their gender identity. It emphasizes a medical or physical transition process.
Current Usage: While some individuals still identify as transsexual, the term has fallen out of widespread use, particularly in favor of transgender. Some people find “transsexual” outdated or overly focused on medical transitions. Many transgender people do not undergo medical procedures, so the term can be limiting.
Non-binary
Definition: Non-binary refers to a gender identity that doesn’t fit within the traditional binary understanding of male or female. Non-binary people may identify as a blend of both genders, somewhere in between, or outside the binary altogether.
Example: Someone who identifies as both masculine and feminine, or neither, might use this term.
Gender fluid
Definition: Genderfluid individuals experience a dynamic gender identity that may change over time or depending on circumstances. They may feel more male, female, or a mix on different days.
Example: Someone who might feel masculine some days, feminine on others, and neutral at other times.
Genderqueer
Definition: Genderqueer is an umbrella term for gender identities that are not exclusively male or female. It often overlaps with non-binary identities but emphasizes the rejection of rigid gender categories.
Example: A person who feels their gender identity fluctuates or does not conform to societal norms.
Ageneder
Definition: Agender refers to a person who does not identify with any gender. They may feel a lack of gender entirely or a disinterest in gender identity as a concept.
Example: A person who doesn’t identify as male, female, or non-binary, but simply as genderless.
Bigender
Definition: Bigender people identify as two genders, either at the same time or switching between them. This can be a combination of male and female or other gender identities.
Example: Someone who feels they embody both a male and female identity simultaneously or alternates between them.
Cisgender
Definition: A term for individuals whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth. “Cis” is a Latin prefix meaning “on this side of,” contrasting with “trans” (meaning “across”).
Example: A person assigned female at birth who identifies and lives as a woman.
Transfeminine / Transmasculine
Definition: Transfeminine describes someone who was assigned male at birth but identifies more with femininity, while transmasculine describes someone assigned female at birth but identifies more with masculinity.
Example: A non-binary person who presents more femininely might identify as transfeminine.
Gender Dysphoria
Definition: Gender dysphoria refers to the discomfort or distress some transgender people feel due to the mismatch between their gender identity and their assigned sex at birth.
Example: A transgender man might experience gender dysphoria due to his physical appearance not aligning with his male gender identity.
Top Surgery / Bottom Surgery
Definition: Top surgery typically refers to surgery to alter the chest (e.g., breast removal for transgender men or breast augmentation for transgender women). Bottom surgery refers to genital reconstruction surgery (e.g., creating a penis for trans men or a vagina for trans women).
Example: A transgender man might undergo top surgery to masculinize his chest.
“Gender-Affirming”
Definition: Gender-affirming refers to practices, treatments, or behaviors that support a person’s gender identity, such as hormone therapy, surgeries, or using correct names and pronouns.
Example: A doctor prescribing hormone therapy to a transgender woman as part of her transition.
Gestures in male-female interaction
Males tend to use more dominant or commanding gestures and movements when communicating with females. Similarly, as compared to their male partners, females tend to use more compliant or acquiescent gestures.
Typical behaviors exhibited by women communicating with men
- Take up less space
- shrink or pull in their bodies
- tilt their heads while talking or listening
- arrange or play with their hair more often than males
- put hands in lap or on hips
- tap hands
- cross legs
- cross ankles
- yield space
- lower eyes
- blink more
- keep legs and feet together while sitting
Typical behaviors exhibited by men communicating with women
- Stare more
- point
- take up more space
- keep head straight
- stretch hands
- stand with legs apart, or sit with legs stretched out with ankles apart
- knees spread while sitting
- stroke chin more
- use larger and more sweeping gestures
- more leg and foot movement
- hold arms away from body more
Female Smiles
Society has socialized women to use a ‘public/social smile’ regardless of the situation, so the female smile, is often not genuine and tells you very little about the woman’s state of mind.
Research suggests that women smile more than men, even when the women are alone.
Women often use smiles to mask or hide anxiety or nervousness, which means they smile all the time, even when giving bad news.
Male Smiles
Men are allowed to be more harsh and demanding than women. They are not pressured to smile in all situations, which means than when they do smile it is more genuine.
Eye contact for females
Women look more at the other person in a conversation than men do. They also look more at one another than men do and hold eye contact longer with another woman than men do with another man. In general, women look at their conversational partner more and longer than men do. As with facial expression, the primary explanation for this behavior is that women feel this is a method of establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. An exception to this pattern occurs when the female and male are positioned at a considerable distance from one another. Both males and females look more when distance increases between them. This is simply an attempt to reduce the physical distance, but it tends to overpower the affiliative situational demands that exist in closer proximity.
Affiliative Tendencies of Women
Affiliative tendencies refer to behaviors or actions aimed at fostering positive social connections, harmony, and bonding with others. These tendencies are driven by the desire to be accepted, to belong to a group, or to maintain relationships.
1) Cooperation: Engaging in behaviors that promote teamwork, collaboration, and harmony.
2) Politeness and Smiling: Using friendly and polite communication, including frequent smiling, to ease interactions and establish rapport.
3) Seeking Social Approval: Behaviors that indicate a desire for acceptance and validation from others.
4) Empathy and Support: Providing emotional support, expressing care, and being attentive to others’ needs.
5) Agreeableness: Being more agreeable or yielding in discussions to maintain positive relations, even at the expense of one’s own opinions or needs.
6) Touch and Proximity: Engaging in friendly or nurturing touch, and maintaining close physical proximity to signal warmth and connection.
7) Frequent Communication: Initiating and maintaining regular social interactions to strengthen bonds and connections.
Alice H. Eagly
Key Contribution: Eagly’s research on gender roles and social behavior focuses on how men and women are socialized into different behaviors based on societal expectations. She has conducted extensive meta-analyses showing that men are more likely to engage in dominance-oriented behaviors, while women are more likely to engage in nurturing and cooperative behaviors.
Influence: Eagly’s findings can be used to understand how societal roles might shape the disinhibition and experience-seeking dimensions of the MASS, with men engaging in more dominance-related activities and women engaging in affiliative or cooperative experiences.
Major Works: Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social Role Interpretation (1987)
Michael Zuckerman
Key Contribution: Zuckerman is a leading researcher in sensation-seeking, a concept closely related to Mehrabian’s arousal-seeking tendencies. His work investigates how individuals seek out new, complex, and intense experiences, and his findings have shown consistent gender differences, with men tending to seek more risky and thrilling experiences.
Influence: Zuckerman’s work closely parallels the MASS, particularly in terms of understanding why men typically score higher on dimensions related to thrill and adventure seeking.
Major Works: Behavioral Expressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking (1994)
David M. Buss
Key Contribution: Buss is an evolutionary psychologist who has extensively researched the evolutionary basis for sex differences, particularly in the domains of mating strategies, risk-taking, and social behavior. His work explores how men and women evolved different strategies for seeking mates and social dominance.
Influence: Buss’s work on sensation-seeking and risk-taking aligns with the thrill and adventure seeking dimension of the MASS, highlighting how evolutionary pressures have shaped gender differences in arousal-seeking behaviors.
Major Works: The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating (1994)
Elanore Maccoby
Key Contribution: Maccoby is a pioneer in developmental psychology, particularly in the study of gender development in children. Her research examines how boys and girls develop differently in terms of social behaviors, such as competition, cooperation, and play.
Influence: Maccoby’s work offers insight into how early socialization influences later arousal-seeking and affiliative behaviors, which are key aspects of the MASS. Her studies show that boys tend to engage in more competitive and risk-taking behavior, while girls focus more on cooperation and emotional sharing.
Major Works: The Psychology of Sex Differences (1974)
Deborah Tannen
Key Contribution: Tannen is a linguist who has conducted extensive research on how men and women communicate differently. Her work emphasizes that men’s communication styles tend to be more focused on independence and status, while women’s communication is more oriented toward connection and intimacy.
Influence: Tannen’s findings provide a clear framework for understanding how men’s and women’s affiliative and agonistic tendencies vary in conversation, directly aligning with the MASS’s insights into social behavior and arousal-seeking.
Major Works: You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation (1990)
Sandra Bem
Key Contribution: Bem developed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), which measures how individuals conform to traditional gender roles. Her work challenged binary gender thinking by suggesting that individuals could exhibit both masculine and feminine traits (androgyny), depending on context.
Influence: Bem’s research has important implications for understanding how affiliative and dominant behaviors might co-exist in both men and women, rather than being strictly divided by gender.
Major Works: The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality (1993)
Addington’s findings regarding gender differences in vocal judgements
Both females and males could use increased rate and still be perceived in a positive fashion.
Nasality was perceived by listeners as having a wide array of socially undesirable characteristics for both males and females.
The male who had a high-pitched voice was seen as dynamic, feminine, and aesthetically inclined. In contrast, the female with a high-pitched voice was seen as more dynamic and extroverted.
The female with the orotund vocal characteristic was perceived as humorless yet lively. The male with the orotund vocal characteristic was seen as energetic, proud, and interesting.
The female with the throaty vocal characteristic was seen as ugly, boorish, and uninteresting; whereas, the male with the throaty vocal characteristic was seen as older, mature, and well adjusted.
The female with the tense vocal characteristic was seen as young and emotional. The male with the tense vocal characteristic was seen as older and more unyielding.
Males and females with flat vocal characteristics were not seen in a very positive light.
Females with a thin voice were seen as emotionally and socially immature while simultaneously getting ratings of increased sense of humor. There were no significant correlations for the male with the thin voice.
Females with the breathy voice were seen as feminine and shallow; whereas, males with the breathy voice were seen as younger and more artistic
Cultural norms in the US regarding touch
Women seem to be more concerned about the type of touch they give or receive than men are. Women are taught that for them to initiate the touch could mislead the man into thinking that the woman was promiscuous
From a young age, boys are encouraged to touch less and learn to need touch less.
Touch between members of the opposite sex in this society carries such strong sexual overtones that it is virtually impossible for touch to occur without being noticed by one or both of the interactants
Summary table on general differences in NVC
Androgyny
Refers to the combination or blending of both traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics in an individual. The androgynous person is highly flexible in her or his behavior. The individual does not feel limited in her or his verbal or nonverbal communication with others. He or she is fully aware of and adaptable to the affiliative and control needs of others. Thus, the androgynous person can sense another’s needs and adapt to them. This type of person recognizes when an interaction partner requires affiliative behavior and can provide it. He or she also recognizes when someone needs to be assertive and can adapt to that situation. People who are gender-role stereotyped (can only perform typical female or typical male behavior) are not as flexible in their verbal and nonverbal communication. They respond in the stereotypical ways. They are also less responsive to the needs of others. In sum, the androgynous individual is likely to be more sensitive nonverbally than the stereotypical male or female.
Sex-Typed v. Gender-Role-Stereotyped
Focus on Individual Behavior vs. Societal Beliefs:
Sex-typed behavior is about how an individual conforms to society’s expectations for their biological sex. It focuses on the individual’s alignment with behaviors that are considered appropriate for their sex.
Gender-role stereotypes refer to societal beliefs or assumptions about what behaviors are appropriate for each gender. These are cultural constructs that shape expectations for both men and women but may not reflect individuals’ actual behaviors or preferences.
Degree of Conformity:
A sex-typed person consciously or unconsciously adheres to behaviors that are typical for their sex. This person may feel more comfortable sticking to traditional gender roles.
Gender-role stereotypes, on the other hand, are more about generalized societal norms. These stereotypes may pressure individuals to behave in a certain way, regardless of whether they are sex-typed or not. Even individuals who do not conform to these norms are still affected by them.
Flexibility:
Sex-typing can vary in its degree and flexibility. While some individuals may strongly identify with behaviors linked to their sex, others may adopt traits associated with the opposite sex and show more psychological flexibility (e.g., androgynous individuals).
Gender-role stereotypes are typically more rigid and prescriptive. They serve as societal rules that limit how men and women “should” behave, leaving little room for deviation without social consequences (such as being labeled as “too masculine” or “too feminine”).
Internalization vs. Societal Imposition:
Sex-typing involves internalization of gender roles, meaning the individual has adopted the beliefs about what is appropriate for their sex and behaves accordingly.
Gender-role stereotypes are more about societal imposition, where the external culture or environment dictates what is expected of men and women, often without considering the individual’s own preferences or traits.
Gender Norms
Definition: Gender norms are the social expectations and rules that dictate what is considered appropriate behavior, attitudes, and appearances for individuals based on their perceived gender. These norms are embedded in cultural, religious, and societal contexts and define what it means to be “masculine” or “feminine.”
Examples:
Men are expected to be assertive, strong, and emotionally stoic.
Women are expected to be nurturing, cooperative, and emotionally expressive.
Men are encouraged to pursue careers in STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, and math), while women are encouraged toward caregiving professions (e.g., nursing, teaching).
Characteristics:
Socially Enforced: Gender norms are often enforced by society through subtle social pressures (e.g., comments, peer behavior) and sometimes overt sanctions (e.g., ostracism, discrimination).
Culturally Specific: Gender norms can vary significantly across cultures. For example, what is considered masculine in one culture may not be the same in another. These norms also evolve over time as society’s views on gender change.
Implicit or Explicit: Some gender norms are explicitly stated (e.g., in certain religious teachings or cultural traditions), while others are implied through behavior, media, and societal expectations.
Key Focus: Gender norms are broader societal guidelines about how people should behave based on their gender.
Gender Roles
Definition: Gender roles refer to the specific responsibilities, behaviors, and functions that society assigns to individuals based on their gender. These roles dictate how men and women are expected to act in various aspects of life, such as work, family, and social settings. Gender roles are the application of gender norms to specific behaviors and social functions.
Examples:
The traditional male gender role is to be the breadwinner of the family, providing financially and protecting the household.
The traditional female gender role is to take care of children, manage the household, and support the emotional needs of the family.
Men are expected to occupy leadership roles in business, politics, and military settings, while women are often expected to focus on domestic roles or caregiving professions.
Characteristics:
Defined by Social Function: Gender roles prescribe what people are supposed to do in specific contexts, such as work, home, or public life, based on their gender.
Divided by Gender: Traditional gender roles are often binary and divide responsibilities based on biological sex. For example, historically, men were expected to work outside the home, while women were expected to manage domestic responsibilities.
Rigid or Flexible: In some cultures and periods, gender roles have been rigid, with little room for deviation. In more contemporary, progressive societies, there is a greater push for flexibility in gender roles, where men and women can choose roles based on personal preferences rather than societal expectations.
Key Focus: Gender roles dictate specific tasks and behaviors that men and women are expected to perform.
Relationship between gender norms and gender roles
Gender norms influence gender roles. Norms provide the broad, societal rules about how men and women should behave, while roles are the specific tasks and responsibilities that society assigns based on those norms. For example:
Norm: Men should be dominant and assertive.
Role: Men are expected to pursue leadership positions in business or politics.
Norm: Women should be nurturing and cooperative.
Role: Women are expected to take on caregiving responsibilities within the home or work in professions such as teaching or nursing.
Norms reinforce roles, and in turn, roles solidify norms. For instance, gender roles in the workplace (e.g., men in leadership, women in support roles) reinforce societal beliefs that men are more suited for decision-making positions, which perpetuates the norm of male dominance.
Key Differences Between Gender Norms and Gender Roles
Bem’s Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), developed by Sandra Bem in 1974, is one of the most well-known tools for assessing gender roles and psychological androgyny. It was created to measure how well individuals fit into traditional gender roles, based on how much they exhibit behaviors, traits, and characteristics that are culturally associated with masculinity and femininity. The BSRI was groundbreaking in shifting the discussion around gender from a binary model (male/female) to a more flexible and inclusive understanding that includes the concept of androgyny—the combination of both masculine and feminine traits in one individual. It allowed for a more flexible understanding of gender roles by showing that people can exhibit both masculine and feminine traits. While the BSRI has had a lasting influence on gender research, it also faces criticism for relying on stereotypes and not fully addressing modern, non-binary understandings of gender.
Structure of the BSRI:
The original BSRI consists of 60 items that describe personal characteristics and behaviors. These items are divided into three categories:
Masculine Traits (20 items): Traits traditionally associated with male gender roles, such as assertiveness, leadership, independence, and self-reliance.
Examples: “Acts as a leader,” “Willing to take risks,” “Independent.”
Feminine Traits (20 items): Traits traditionally associated with female gender roles, such as empathy, warmth, nurturance, and sensitivity to the needs of others.
Examples: “Affectionate,” “Loves children,” “Understanding.”
Neutral Traits (20 items): Traits that are not specifically associated with masculinity or femininity and are considered gender-neutral.
Examples: “Reliable,” “Happy,” “Conscientious.”
Each item is rated on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Never or almost never true) to 7 (Always or almost always true). The participant scores themselves based on how well each characteristic describes them.
Scoring of the BSRI:
The BSRI allows for the identification of four gender role orientations based on the individual’s scores in both masculine and feminine traits:
Masculine: High score on the masculine scale and low on the feminine scale. This indicates that the individual primarily exhibits traditionally masculine traits and behaviors.
Feminine: High score on the feminine scale and low on the masculine scale. This indicates that the individual primarily exhibits traditionally feminine traits and behaviors.
Androgynous: High scores on both the masculine and feminine scales. This suggests the individual exhibits a balanced mix of both masculine and feminine traits and can adapt behaviors depending on the situation. Androgyny is considered by Bem to be the most flexible and adaptable orientation.
Undifferentiated: Low scores on both the masculine and feminine scales. This indicates that the individual does not strongly identify with either set of traits and might lack a clear orientation toward traditional gender roles.
Gender-Role-Stereotyped
Definition: Gender-role-stereotyped refers to the oversimplified and often rigid beliefs or assumptions about the behaviors, traits, and roles that are appropriate for men and women. These stereotypes are based on socially constructed ideas about masculinity and femininity, rather than biological differences between the sexes.
Gender-role stereotypes are the generalized ideas about what men and women should do or be like. For example, “men should be strong and unemotional” and “women should be nurturing and passive” are common gender-role stereotypes.
Key Characteristics of Gender-Role Stereotypes:
Prescriptive: These stereotypes dictate how individuals should behave based on their gender, regardless of their personal traits or preferences.
Limiting: Gender-role stereotypes can limit individuals by enforcing strict expectations and discouraging behaviors that do not conform to traditional gender roles.
Cultural Variability: While gender-role stereotypes exist in all societies, the specific content of these stereotypes can vary across cultures. What is considered masculine or feminine in one culture may differ in another.
Example: A common gender-role stereotype is that men are better suited for leadership positions and that women are better suited for caregiving roles, even though there is no inherent biological basis for these assignments. This can lead to discrimination in professional settings, where women may be passed over for leadership roles based on these stereotypes.
Sex Typed
Definition: Sex-typed refers to the degree to which an individual’s behavior, traits, or roles conform to culturally defined expectations for their biological sex. In other words, if a person is “sex-typed,” their behavior aligns closely with the traditional roles and characteristics society assigns to their biological sex (male or female).
For example, a sex-typed male would exhibit behaviors, preferences, and traits traditionally considered masculine (e.g., assertiveness, competitiveness, leadership).
A sex-typed female would exhibit behaviors, preferences, and traits traditionally considered feminine (e.g., nurturing, emotional sensitivity, submissiveness).
Concept Origin: The concept of sex-typing was introduced in part by researchers like Sandra Bem, who explored how individuals internalize gender roles. Sex-typed individuals are those who strongly adhere to the traditional traits and behaviors prescribed for their biological sex.
Key Characteristics of Sex-Typed Individuals:
They exhibit behaviors and preferences strongly associated with their assigned sex.
They may adhere to traditional notions of masculinity or femininity without crossing into behaviors typically associated with the opposite sex.
Sex-typing is often seen in more traditional or conservative contexts, where strict gender roles are upheld.
Example: A man who enjoys competitive sports, avoids expressing vulnerability, and prefers leadership roles over caregiving would be considered sex-typed based on traditional gender expectations for men.
Significance of the BSRI in Gender Research
Challenging the Gender Binary: The BSRI challenged the notion that masculinity and femininity were opposites and instead positioned them as independent dimensions. A person can have high levels of both, neither, or one more than the other.
Broadening Gender Identity: By including the concept of androgyny, the BSRI expanded the understanding of gender identity beyond traditional masculine/feminine roles, emphasizing the flexibility and complexity of gender expression.
Psychological Flexibility: Bem argued that androgynous individuals—those who scored high in both masculine and feminine traits—were more adaptable in their behaviors, depending on the demands of the situation. They could, for example, exhibit assertiveness in work situations and show nurturing behavior in personal relationships without feeling constrained by gender expectations.
Impact on Feminism and Gender Equality: The BSRI resonated strongly with the feminist movement of the 1970s and 1980s, as it called attention to the restrictive nature of traditional gender roles. It suggested that individuals should not be limited by societal expectations based on their biological sex and that both men and women could benefit from integrating both masculine and feminine traits.
*Despite some criticisms, the BSRI remains a widely used tool in gender studies and psychology and continues to inform research on gender roles and androgyny. It has influenced the development of newer gender-role assessment tools and contributed significantly to the understanding of how individuals navigate the complexities of gender in both personal and professional life.
Territoriality
Territoriality is a pattern of attitudes and behavior held by a person or group that is based on perceived or actual control of a physical space/object/area
Male Territoriality
Men are generally more likely to express territorial behavior by marking and defending physical space, whether at work, in social settings, or at home. Men may be more inclined to use objects or furniture (e.g., jackets on chairs, spread-out papers) to signal ownership of space.
Example: In an office setting, men might spread their belongings across a desk or meeting table to establish dominance over the area.
Female Territoriality
Women typically take up less physical space and are less likely to engage in territorial behaviors. Women are often socialized to be more reserved in their use of space, and studies suggest they are more likely to conform to social norms that encourage minimizing physical presence, particularly in public settings.
Male Personal Space
Men tend to maintain larger personal space distances compared to women, especially in same-sex interactions. Research suggests that men are more likely to keep greater physical distance from others, possibly due to societal norms of masculinity, independence, and a lower tolerance for physical closeness in non-intimate contexts.
Female Personal space
Women typically maintain smaller personal spaces and are more comfortable with close physical proximity, particularly in interactions with other women. Women are often socialized to be more relational, affiliative, and nurturing, which may lead to greater physical closeness in both friendships and other non-intimate relationships.
Male Body Positioning
Men are more likely to adopt side-by-side orientations, particularly in informal settings. Research has shown that men often position themselves alongside others rather than directly facing them, a behavior linked to competitiveness and a desire to avoid direct confrontation in non-intimate interactions.
Female Body Positioning
Women tend to face each other more directly during conversations, which promotes emotional and relational engagement. Women are more likely to use face-to-face orientations to create intimacy and connection, particularly in one-on-one settings.
Female Touching
Women are more likely to use touch in social interactions, particularly with other women. Research shows that women often use touch as a way to express warmth, support, and emotional connection. They are more likely to initiate touch in both casual and intimate settings.
Male Touching
Men are less likely to engage in touch outside of intimate relationships, particularly with other men. Social norms around masculinity and homophobia may contribute to men maintaining greater physical distance and limiting the use of touch in non-intimate relationships.
Henley’s “Gender and Nonverbal Dominance” Experiment
Researchers/Year: Nancy Henley, 1977
Purpose: To explore how gender influences nonverbal expressions of power and dominance in social interactions.
Method: Henley observed men and women in conversation, analyzing their nonverbal cues such as posture, gestures, gaze, and spatial behavior. She focused on identifying behaviors associated with dominance and submissiveness in mixed-gender interactions.’
Findings: Henley found that men more frequently displayed nonverbal behaviors associated with dominance, such as taking up more space (manspreading), interrupting, and maintaining eye contact, whereas women often adopted more submissive nonverbal behaviors like minimizing space and avoiding direct gaze.
Impact: This study was foundational in the development of the concept of gendered nonverbal communication, showing how power dynamics and societal roles influence body language and nonverbal cues. It has influenced discussions on gender equality and communication in various social and professional settings.
Sandra Bem
Significant Contribution: Sandra Bem is known for developing the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) in 1974, a tool to measure psychological androgyny. Her theory challenged the traditional binary view of masculinity and femininity, proposing that individuals can exhibit both masculine and feminine traits.
Impact: Bem’s work significantly influenced how gender roles are understood, emphasizing flexibility rather than rigid roles. Her research contributed to discussions about gender equality and reshaping gender roles in society.
Publication: Her research on the BSRI was first published in the journal Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology in 1974.
Carol Gilligan
Significant Contribution: Carol Gilligan is best known for her book In a Different Voice (1982), where she challenged Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which was based predominantly on male subjects. She argued that men and women have different ways of thinking about morality, with women focusing more on care and relationships.
Impact: Gilligan’s work brought attention to the lack of female perspectives in psychological research and helped broaden the field of developmental psychology by incorporating gender-based differences in moral reasoning.
Publication: In a Different Voice was first published in 1982.
Eleanor Maccoby
Significant Contribution: Eleanor Maccoby co-authored The Psychology of Sex Differences (1974) with Carol Jacklin, a comprehensive review of empirical studies on gender differences. They concluded that there were far fewer psychological differences between the sexes than previously thought, especially in areas like intelligence, temperament, and social behavior.
Impact: Maccoby’s work debunked many stereotypes about inherent differences between males and females, influencing subsequent research in gender psychology and the feminist movement.
Publication: The Psychology of Sex Differences was published in 1974.
Janet Shibley Hyde
Significant Contribution: Janet Hyde is known for her Gender Similarities Hypothesis, which posits that males and females are more alike than different on most psychological variables. Her meta-analyses demonstrated that while differences do exist, they are much smaller than commonly believed.
Impact: Hyde’s research has reshaped discussions about gender in psychology, promoting the idea that similarities, rather than differences, should be emphasized in understanding human behavior.
Publication: Her key paper, “The Gender Similarities Hypothesis,” was published in the American Psychologist journal in 2005.
David Bus
Significant Contribution: David Buss is renowned for his work in evolutionary psychology, particularly for studying gender differences in mate preferences and sexual behavior. His 1989 study showed consistent cross-cultural differences, where men preferred younger, physically attractive mates, while women preferred older mates with resources.
Impact: Buss’s work provided an evolutionary framework for understanding gender differences in mate selection, influencing both psychology and anthropology in how gender roles and behaviors are interpreted in the context of reproductive strategies.
Publication: His landmark study was published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences in 1989.
Alice Eagley
Significant Contribution: Alice Eagly is best known for her Social Role Theory, which argues that observed gender differences in behavior stem from societal roles and expectations rather than inherent biological differences. Her research explored how gender roles influence behavior in leadership, aggression, and interpersonal relations.
Impact: Eagly’s theory helped shift the focus from biology to social constructs when understanding gender differences, highlighting how culture and context play a central role in shaping behaviors attributed to men and women.
Publication: The foundational paper on Social Role Theory appeared in American Psychologist in 1987.
Robert Trivers
Significant Contribution: Robert Trivers made a significant contribution through his Parental Investment Theory, which explains gender differences in behavior through the lens of reproductive investment. The theory posits that because females invest more in offspring (gestation, nurturing), they are more selective in choosing mates, whereas males compete for access to females.
Impact: This theory has had a profound effect on understanding gender differences in evolutionary psychology, providing insights into mating strategies, aggression, and sexual selection.
Publication: Trivers introduced this theory in his paper “Parental Investment and Sexual Selection,” published in 1972 in Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man.
Deborah Tannen
Significant Contribution: Deborah Tannen’s research focuses on gender differences in communication, as presented in her popular book You Just Don’t Understand (1990). She posits that men and women have distinct conversational styles, with men focusing on status and independence and women focusing on connection and intimacy.
Impact: Tannen’s work has helped to explain misunderstandings between genders in communication, influencing fields like linguistics, social psychology, and relationship counseling.
Publication: You Just Don’t Understand was published in 1990 and became a bestseller.
John Money
Significant Contribution: John Money introduced the concept of gender identity and gender roles as distinct from biological sex. His work on intersex individuals and the social construction of gender norms was pioneering in separating the idea of gender from mere biological determinism.
Impact: Money’s work has been foundational in discussions about transgender identities and gender dysphoria, playing a major role in the fields of sexology and gender studies.
Publication: His key contributions were made in the 1950s and 1960s, with Sexual Signatures published in 1975.
The Visual Cliff Experiment
Researchers/Year: Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin, 1974
Purpose: To study sex differences in spatial perception and fear of heights in infants.
Method: In this experiment, infants were placed on a platform where one side was a solid surface and the other was a transparent “visual cliff” that appeared to be a drop-off, although it was covered by glass. Researchers observed whether infants of different sexes showed differences in their willingness to crawl over the visual cliff.
Findings: The experiment found no significant gender differences in spatial perception or fear of heights at this early age, challenging the common belief at the time that males naturally had superior spatial skills.
Impact: This study contributed to Maccoby and Jacklin’s broader research findings that many assumed gender differences in abilities, particularly spatial perception, were not supported by empirical evidence, as outlined in The Psychology of Sex Differences (1974).
The Bobo Doll Experiment
Researchers/Year: Albert Bandura, 1961
Purpose: To investigate whether children imitate aggressive behaviors, and if there are gender differences in the type of aggression modeled and performed.
Method: Children were shown an adult behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll (hitting, kicking, etc.). They were then placed in a room with the doll to observe if they would mimic the adult’s aggressive behavior. Boys and girls were exposed to both male and female models of aggression.
Findings: Both boys and girls imitated the aggressive behavior, but boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression, while girls imitated more verbal aggression. Additionally, children were more likely to mimic a same-gender adult model.
Impact: This experiment demonstrated that gender differences in aggression could be learned through observation, not merely biological, and it reinforced the importance of role models in children’s socialization.
Hyde’s Math and Verbal Skills Meta-Analysis Study
Researchers/Year: Janet Shibley Hyde and colleagues, 1990
Purpose: To examine gender differences in math and verbal performance by analyzing a large number of existing studies.
Method: Hyde and her team conducted a meta-analysis of studies that assessed gender differences in mathematics and verbal ability among children and adults.
Findings: The analysis revealed only small differences between males and females in math and verbal performance, with girls slightly outperforming boys in verbal tasks and boys slightly outperforming girls in advanced mathematical problem-solving, but the effect sizes were small.
Impact: This research supported the idea that gender similarities, rather than differences, are the norm in cognitive abilities. It helped debunk the stereotype that boys are naturally better at math and science, while girls are better at language-related tasks. Hyde’s Gender Similarities Hypothesis was largely based on this analysis.
Gendered Toys Experiment
Researchers/Year: Alexander and Hines, 2002
Purpose: To study whether sex differences in toy preferences are biologically innate or socially constructed.
Method: This experiment involved giving rhesus monkeys toys that are typically associated with human boys (wheeled toys like trucks) and girls (plush toys like dolls) and observing their preferences.
Findings: Male monkeys showed a clear preference for the wheeled toys, while female monkeys showed equal interest in both types of toys.
Impact: These findings suggested that at least some gender differences in toy preferences might have a biological component, as they appeared in animals with no exposure to human societal gender norms. This study continues to influence discussions on nature vs. nurture in gender development.
Tannen’s Interrupted Study
Researchers/Year: Deborah Tannen, 1990s
Purpose: To examine gender differences in conversational interruptions.
Method: Tannen and her team conducted observational studies in which they recorded conversations in various settings (workplaces, classrooms) and analyzed the frequency and type of interruptions by men and women.
Findings: The study found that men were more likely to interrupt women than other men, often in ways that asserted dominance, while women tended to interrupt for cooperative purposes, such as agreeing or supporting.
Impact: This experiment had a profound impact on the understanding of gender and communication, particularly in workplace dynamics. It illustrated how power dynamics and gender roles can shape everyday interactions, influencing later research on gender and leadership.
Steele and Aronson’s “Gender Priming and Math Performance Experiment”
Researchers/Year: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson, 1995
Purpose: To study how stereotype threat affects performance, specifically whether being reminded of gender stereotypes can impair math performance in women.
Method: Female and male college students were asked to take a math test. Before the test, some were told that the test had previously shown gender differences (stereotype-primed condition), while others were told it showed no gender differences.
Findings: Women in the stereotype-primed condition performed worse on the math test than those who were not primed with the gender stereotype, while men’s performance was unaffected by the prime.
Impact: This study introduced the concept of stereotype threat, showing that awareness of negative stereotypes can impair performance. It has influenced educational practices and the development of interventions to reduce stereotype threat, particularly in STEM fields.
The Baby X Experiment
Researchers/Year: Phyllis A. Katz and Sue R. Kofkin, 1977
Purpose: To investigate how adults’ perceptions of an infant’s gender affect their interactions with the child.
Method: Adults were introduced to a 6-month-old infant dressed in gender-neutral clothing. They were told the baby was either a boy, a girl, or given no gender information. The adults were then observed while interacting with the baby, with toys and activities available that were stereotypically masculine, feminine, or neutral.
Findings: Adults chose toys and interacted with the baby based on the perceived gender. If they believed the baby was a girl, they were more likely to choose dolls and engage in gentle play. If they thought the baby was a boy, they opted for balls or trucks and engaged in more physical play. When no gender was specified, adults often tried to guess the gender based on the baby’s appearance or behavior.
Impact: The experiment highlighted how gender stereotypes influence adult behavior toward infants, suggesting that societal expectations contribute to the early socialization of gender roles.
Steele’s Women’s Math Performance Experiment
Researchers/Year: Steven J. Spencer, Claude M. Steele, and Diane M. Quinn, 1999
Purpose: To examine how stereotype threat affects women’s performance in mathematics.
Method: Male and female participants with strong math abilities were given difficult math tests. Prior to the test, one group was told that the test had shown gender differences in the past (activating stereotype threat), while another group was told it was gender-neutral.
Findings: Women under the stereotype threat condition performed worse than men and worse than women in the gender-neutral condition. When the threat was removed, women’s performance matched that of their male counterparts.
Impact: This study demonstrated that performance can be hindered by the awareness of negative stereotypes, leading to increased research on stereotype threat and interventions to reduce its effects in educational settings.
Clance and Imes’ Impostor Syndrome Experiment
Researchers/Year: Pauline R. Clance and Suzanne A. Imes, 1978
Purpose: To explore feelings of intellectual fraudulence among successful women.
Method: Through clinical observations and interviews, Clance and Imes studied over 150 high-achieving women who, despite their accomplishments, felt they were not intelligent and had deceived others about their abilities.
Findings: They identified the “Impostor Phenomenon,” where individuals doubt their success and fear being exposed as frauds. This was linked to family expectations and societal pressures on women.
Impact: The concept has been widely recognized and studied, shedding light on the psychological barriers that can affect women’s career advancement and leading to strategies to bolster self-confidence.
Faculty Bias Experiment
Researchers/Year: Corinne A. Moss-Racusin, John F. Dovidio, Victoria L. Brescoll, Mark J. Graham, and Jo Handelsman, 2012
Purpose: To investigate gender bias in academic science faculty’s perceptions and treatment of male and female students.
Method: Science faculty from research-intensive universities were asked to evaluate a student application for a laboratory manager position. The applications were identical except for the name, which was randomly assigned as male (John) or female (Jennifer).
Findings: Faculty rated the male applicant as significantly more competent and hireable than the female applicant. They also offered the male higher starting salaries and more career mentoring opportunities.
Impact: The study provided empirical evidence of implicit gender bias in academia, prompting discussions and initiatives to address gender inequality in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.
Gilligan Moral Reasoning Experiment
Researchers/Year: Carol Gilligan, 1982
Purpose: To challenge existing theories of moral development that were based largely on male participants and perspectives.
Method: Using interviews and narrative analysis, Gilligan examined how women make moral decisions, focusing on real-life dilemmas and relationships.
Findings: She proposed that women are more likely to use an “ethic of care,” emphasizing relationships and responsibilities, while men use an “ethic of justice,” focusing on rules and rights. This suggested that moral reasoning is influenced by gendered socialization.
Impact: Gilligan’s work broadened the understanding of moral development and emphasized the importance of including diverse perspectives in psychological research. It has influenced fields like ethics, education, and feminist theory.
Lin and Petersen’s Spatial Abilities Experiment
Researchers/Year: Marcia Linn and Anne Petersen, 1985
Purpose: To analyze gender differences in spatial abilities through a meta-analysis.
Method: The researchers reviewed and synthesized results from 172 studies that assessed spatial abilities in males and females.
Findings: They found that males generally outperformed females on tasks requiring mental rotation, but the differences varied depending on the type of spatial task and could be influenced by experience and training.
Impact: The study highlighted the complexity of cognitive gender differences and suggested that educational interventions could reduce gaps in spatial abilities, which are important in STEM fields.
Hall’s Emotional Expression Studies
Researchers/Year: Judith A. Hall, 1984
Purpose: To investigate gender differences in nonverbal communication and emotional expression.
Method: Through a series of experiments and meta-analyses, Hall examined how men and women send and interpret nonverbal cues, including facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language.
Findings: Women were generally more accurate at decoding nonverbal cues and more expressive in their facial expressions. These differences were attributed to socialization practices that encourage emotional attunement in women.
Impact: This research contributed to understanding interpersonal communication and has applications in psychology, counseling, and improving workplace interactions.
Eagley’s Gender Differences in Helping Behavior
Researchers/Year: Alice H. Eagly and Maureen Crowley, 1986
Purpose: To examine whether men and women differ in helping behaviors.
Method: A meta-analysis of studies on helping behavior in various contexts was conducted to identify patterns based on gender.
Findings: Men were more likely to engage in heroic, chivalrous helping behaviors, especially when observers were present, while women were more likely to provide long-term, nurturing support. These differences were linked to societal expectations and gender roles.
Impact: The study provided insights into how gender norms shape prosocial behavior and has implications for understanding volunteerism and caregiving professions.
Bem’s Androgyny Questionare
Researchers/Year: Sandra Bem, 1974
Purpose: To measure masculinity, femininity, and psychological androgyny.
Method: Bem developed a self-report questionnaire assessing how individuals identify with traits culturally associated with masculinity and femininity.
Findings: The BSRI revealed that individuals could possess high levels of both masculine and feminine traits, challenging the traditional view of gender as a single continuum.
Impact: The concept of psychological androgyny influenced gender studies by promoting the idea that flexibility in gender roles is associated with better psychological health.
