Neurology Flashcards
The _____ ___ synthesizes dopamine. disorders of this area result in issues such as Parkinson disease and schizophrenia.
substantia nigra
Metablic alterations in arousal are thought to be caused by a lack of energy such as ______, ______ or ______
- oxygen, 2. electrolytes, 3. glucose
____ are long projections from the cell body that carry impulses ____. The ____ _____ is a cone shaped process where the ___ leaves the body and contains the lowest threshold for stimulation for _____ ________(s) to occur.
- Axons, 2. away, 3. axon hillock, 4. axon, 5. action potential
When performing a lumbar puncture, you would want to tap the spinal cord at the _______ ____
subarachnoid space
The peripheral nervous system sends signals via two directions. The ____ pathway carries information towards the central nervous system, while the ____ pathway innervates _____ organs such as skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscles as well as ____
- afferent, 2. efferent, 3. effector, 4. glands
The _____ is an electrical cell that transmits electrical and chemical information between like cells or to ______ _____(s)
- Neurons, 2. effector organs
____ are extensions of the neuron that carry nerve impulses ____ the cell body, which the reception of the impulse is determined by the ______ zone.
- dendrites, 2. toward, 3. dendritic
When thinking about neurotransmitters and their actions on cell to cell activity, they can illicit either an _______ or _______ response with the former causing a state of _______ and thus leading to the neuron ‘firing’ while the latter causes a state of ________ which will make it more difficult for the cell to take action.
- excitatory, 2. inhibitory, 3. depolariation, 4. hyperpolarization
Motor neurons are classified as _____ motor neurons, which are mainly in the central nervous system and involve fine motor control, as well as ____ motor neurons which act directly on muscles and destruction of these neurons can result in permanent paralysis if there is no peripheral nerve regeneration.
- Upper, 2. Lower
Neurotransmitters have a variety of control over pain sensation and can be divided into ______ and ______ neurotransmitters.
- excitatory, 2. inhibitory
Neuropathies are disease process that injure axons, affecting distinct areas of the axon, spinal nerve roots and plexus within peripheral nerves. These diseases are divided into three categories: ______ ______ ___neuropathies (distal axonal polyneuropathy, demyelinating polyneuropathy [GBS]), _________ neuropathies (affects the cell body one one type of peripheral neuron) and _____ neuropathy (affects sensory and motor fibers in one or more nerves, e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome).
- generalized symmetric poly, 2. generalized, 3. focal
delirium occurs due to hyperactivity of the _____ nervous system and is thought to be caused by various neurotransmitters such as increased dopamine, norepinephrine and glutamate and decreased acetylcholine and/or melatonin
- autonomic
The ____-______ ____ ,or the master clock, regulates a person’s wake and sleep cycle and are stimulated by a variety of factors that normally contribute to this process.
supra-chiasmatic nucleus
The terms tonic and clonic refer to ______ muscle tone and _______ muscle contraction and relaxation respectively.
- increased, 2. spasmodic
The principle of ______ refers to the ability of axonal branches to influence many different neurons.
Divergence
When assessing patients for any type of neurological lesions, the main thing to differentiate is if the lesion is in ______ _____ neurons or ______ _____ neurons with the former being located in the Central nervous system and the latter being outside the CNS
- Upper Motor, 2. Lower Motor
Febrile seizures may occur with temperatures greater than ____ F
100.4
The _____ is an integrated circuit composed of millions of neurons and receives 15-20% of cardiac output. This organ allows people to reason, function intellectually and express themselves.
Brain
The brainstem holds a collection of nuclei that creates the _______ ______, which connects the brainstem to the ____ and controls vital functions including cardiovascular and pulmonary functions.
- reticular formation, 2. cortex
While the blood brain barrier doesnt allow for many types of substances to enter, there are a few areas that dont have this barrier in order to sample the body’s internal environment including the _____, ______ and _____ gland
- pituitary, 2. hypothalamus, 3. pineal
The parasympathetic system is also known as the ______ system due to it’s affinity for _______ which binds to ______ receptors
- cholinergic, 2. acetylcholine, 3. muscarinic
When evaluating breathing patterns from a neurological standpoint, disorders will be classified as either _____ or ______, where the latter will typically occur due to a decrease in consciousness and/or increased requirement of CO2 levels in order to stimulate ventilation.
- hemispheric, 2. brainstem
Multiple Sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory condition due to an autoimmune response that causes _______ of CNS _____, _____ (sclerosis and plaque formation) and loss of _____
- Degeneration, 2. myelin, 3. scarring, 4. axons
Akinetic mutism is a _________ state characterized by loss of _____ to move or inability to initiate voluntary _____ responses
- neurobehavioral, 2. motivation, 3. motor
_____ is the effect of multiple _____ postsynaptic potentials on the plasma membrane potential.
- Facilitation, 2. excitatory
Seizures can be anticipated at times due to certain phases such as _____ or a sense of depression/headache that can occur hours to days prior and an _____ which can take place in visual or auditory experiences and can occur just before a seizure starts.
- prodroma, 2. aura
A _____ is a sudden disruption of brain electrical function caused by abnormal discharges of cortical neurons
seizure
In a caloric ice water test, a normal response involves _____ movement or attention towards the stimulus
conjugate
______ neurotransmitters include GABA in the spinal cord as well as serotoning and norepinephrine, however the latter 2 can also excite ______ nerves.
- inhibitory, 2. peripheral
When glucose enters the neurons of brain cells, it does not rely on _____ for management of glucose intake.
insulin
Cellular components of the neuron include ______, which transports substances within the cell, _______, or thin fibers that provide support, _________ (proteins involved in cellular product transportation), and ___ _____/____ (The ER and ribosomes of neurons) which are involved in protein synthesis.
- microtubules, 2. neurofibrils, 3. microfilaments, 4. Nissl substances/bodies
Hemispheric breathing can be normal, but also includes __________ apnea and ______-_____ respiration which is characterized by abnormal rhythm with alternating periods of hyperventilation and apnea
- posthyperventilation apena, 2. Cheyne-Stokes
Cancer pain in particular is difficult to treat due to a decreased expression of the _____ receptor.
Opioid
Seizures are now classified according to ______ it occurs, such as focal or generalized, and the level of _____ during seizure activity.
- where, 2. awareness
Primary neurotransmitters for sleep include _____ and ____, while neurotransmitters for wakefulness include ______, ______, ______ and ______.
- GABA, 2. galanin, 3. serotonin, 4. norepinephrine, 5. dopamine-acetylcholine(ACh), 6. glutamine
Despite sympathetic outflow being specific to thoraco-lumbar areas, in the event of a crisis, or flight or flight, a bundel of nerves called _____ _____ ganglia assist in spreading sympathetic impulses up and down the spinal tracts to innervate the head and neck so that all areas of the body are aware of the crisis.
- cervical chain
Examples of speech disorder in schizophrenia include _______ thought or difficult to comprehend and illogical and ______ of content which involves repetitive vocabulary.
- formal, 2. poverty
When initiating action potential and moving all the way to the ______ axon where cells synapse (meet). a ________ which is stored in the synapses will communicate to the target cell to illicate the functional response. This method tends to occur mainly in _____, _____ and _____ based cells/tissues due high energy needs.
- Terminal, 2. Neurotransmitter, 3. nerve, 4. muscle, 5. gland
Tay-Sachs disease is a type of ________ _____ disorder that involves a deficiency enzyme hexosaminidase (HexA) that leads to a build up of _______ that causes toxicity to nerve cells and symptoms include seizures, dementia and blindness.
- lysosomal storage, 2. gangliosidosis
_______ is an important deficiency to screen for in newborns due to it being unable to be converted by phenylalanine hydroxylase to form ______, which is essential for biosynthesis of proteins, melanin, thyroxine and catecholamines.
- Phenylketonuria, 2. Tyrosine
Cerebral metabolism mainly relies on ______ and _____ for its energy needs and therefore rely purely on ______ ______
- glucose, 2. oxygen, 3. aerobic metabolism
The five areas to assess for in neurologic response are ______, ______ , _______ reaction, _______ responses and _______ responses
- consciousness, 2. breathing, 3. pupillary, 4. occulomotor, 5. motor
The two greatest risk factors when assessing for Alzheimer’s disease are ____ and ______ history
- age, 2. familial
The ____ ______ is a bundle of fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
corpus callosum
Heat production occurs via increased _______, _____ muscle contraction (shivering) and ______ thermogenesis.
- metabolism, 2. skeletal, 3. chemical (Epinephrine/Norepinephrine)
Specific ______ nervous system neurotransmitters include ____ ____, _______, _____ along with a variety of other types of neurotransmitters such as various hormones and pain chemicals like endogenous opioids
- Central, 2. amino acids (neutral/inhibitory AA such as GABA and glycin, and acidic/excitatory AA such as glutamate and aspartate 3. acetylcholine, 4. monoamines (serotonin, epinephrine/norepinephrine, dopamine)
Obstructive sleep apnea can confer risks as ________, increased risk of ______ _____ and causes micro sleeps
- hypertension, 2. myocardial infarction
During pain transmission, when pain ascends to upwards via the spinothalamic tracts, these tracts are divided into the _______ tract (anterior spinal thalamic tract) which carries fast impulses for acute pain and the ________ tract (lateral spinothalamic tract) which carries slow impulses for chronic/dull pain.
- neospinothalamic, 2. paleospinothalamic
Narcolepsy is thought to occur due to a deficiency of _____/_____
hypocretin/orexin
_____ are considered the primary brain tumor and can be malignant. These tumors are categorized from oligodendrocytes and are known to be caused due to a mutation in the _______ ______ 1/2 gene (IDH1/2)
- Gliomas, 2. isocitrate dehydrogenase
The _______ is composed of four areas: the ____ which forms the roof of the third ventricle and superior area, the ______ manages afferent (sensory) impulses to the cerebral cortex, the ______ maintains a constant internal environment by controlling the ______ nervous system via body temperature and endocrine function and finally the ______ serves as a center for motor activities.
- Diencephalon, 2. epithalamus, 3. Thalamus, 4. hypothalamus, 5. autonomic, 6. subthalamus
When spinal cord injury is suspected, the first thing to do is immediately _____ the spine.
immobilize
The _____ ____ carries cerebrospinal fluid.
cerebral aqueduct
_____ seizures are commonly seen in children and due to potential underlying causes such as _____ , drug therapy is not recommended in this case.
- febrile, 2. infection
Two neurotransmitters believed to play a role in schizophrenia include ______ and _____ where the former is theorized that drugs that blocked these receptors can reduce symptoms and vice versa drugs that increase transmission of can induce schizophrenic like symptoms. The latter hypothesizes that an underactivation of this neurotransmitter as well as synthesis can bring about positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, specifically drugs that block the _____ receptor can also cause these effects.
- dopamine, 2. glutamate, 3. NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate)
____ areas specify certain parts of the brain that when stimulated causes specific muscles to move.
Brodmann
Processing potentially harmful stimuli through the nervous system is called ______ and are recepted by _______, which are unevenly distributed through out the body and can cause different levels of stimuli as a result.
- nociception, 2. nociceptors
When neurotransmitters release their contents into the ______ ____, they diffuse across and bind to receptors on the ____ synaptic neurons and trigger an ____ ______
- synaptic cleft, 2. post, 3. action potential
The three essential neural systems for cognitive function include: ________, _____ and ______ systems and _______
- attention, 2. memory and learning, 3. emotions
The ___ matter of the spinal cord is divided into three regions: the _____ horn primarily conducts sensory neurons, the _____ horn contains cell bodies associated with the ______ nervous system, and the ______ horn contains cell bodies for _____ or efferent pathways and travel by leaving the spinal cord via spinal nerves.
- gray, 2. posterior, 3. lateral, 4. autonomic. 5. anterior/ventral, 6. motor
In the final stage of ICP, brain tissue will ______ or shift to a compartment of lesser pressure causing symptoms such as obstructive hydrocephalus
herniate
Three classes of antidepressants involve ______ _____ inhibitors (MAOI) ________ antidepressants (TCA) and selective ______ _____ inhibitors (SSRI)
- Monoamine oxidase, 2. Tricyclic, 3. serontonin reuptake
In Parkinson Disease, there is an autoimmune response that attacks the ______ ____ which leads to a overall decrease in _______ resulting in symptoms such as tremors and muscle rigidity. This situation in itself is a result of the brain being unable to inhibit various spinal or involuntary reflexes or ________
- substantia nigra, 2. dopamine. 3. DISinhibition
Heat regulation is managed primarily by the _______ nervous system.
sympathetic
Nociceptors are ______ sensory receptors and do not exist in the ______ nervous system
- peripheral, 2. central
Migraines are episodic headaches that can last anywhere from 4 to 72 hours and can be diagnosed by at least two of the following: _____ head pain, _____ pain, pain with _______ and moderate to severe pain. This must also be accompanied by either _____/______ or _____/_____ phobia.
- unilateral, 2. throbbing, 3. activity, 4. nausea/vomiting, 5. photo/phono
The hallmark of Parkinson disease involves the loss of ______ neurons in the substantia nigra and is thought to be caused by degeneration of the _____ ______
- dopaminergic, 2. basal ganglia
During a ____ ___ (generalized tonic clonic) seizure, a focused area of the brain generates epileptiform brain waves that spreads from an area to the entire brain and into the spinal cord.
- gran mal
Despite being a part of the peripheral nervous system, the ______ nervous system is also present in many spinal and cranial nerves.
autonomic
The spinal cord is divided into five sections, mainly consisting of vertebra that correspond to certain areas that include eight _____, twelve ______, 5 _____ as well as 5 ____ and 1(or a total of 4 fused) _____ vertebra
- cervical, 2. thoracic, 3. lumbar, 4. sacral, 5. coccyx
Specific areas of skin innervation from spinal cord nerves are referred to as ______
dermatomes
Diffuse Axonal Injury (DAI) is thought to occur from _____ contusion which is caused by _____ type injury (MVA) or cortical/brainstem damage by _____ or ____ injuries
- brainstem, 2. shaking, 3. shearing, 4. torn
Types of brainsteam breathing involve _____, _____ and _____ respirations
- apneusis, 2. cluster, 3. ataxic
Pain modulation occurs via ______ _______ pathways (facilitatory), ____ and _________ or in particular the periaqueductual gray matter and the raphe nucleus from the midbrain. Forms of this include ____ ______ of pain, or when AB fibers are stimulated in the same spinal area as a-delta fibers and c fibers. ______ ___ modulation (diffuse noxious inhbitory control) involves the spinal-medullary pathway when two types of pain occur from different sites; examples of this modulation include acupuncture deep tissue massage. _____-____ _____ activation can occur due to one’s perception of pain and can either positively or negatively affect pain via inhibitory pathways.
- descending inhibitory, 2. nuclei, 3. neurotransmitters, 4. Segmental inhibition, 5. Conditioned pain, 6. Expectancy-related cortical
The _____ system is a group of connected structures between the telencephalon and diencelphalon and is composed of the amygdala, hippocampus, fornix, hypothalamus and related autonomic nuclei. The principal effects involved are basic behavior responses, emotional reactions, motivation, biological rhythms and smell.
Limbic
When assessing a patient’s _______ to determine brain death, you would assess the _______ reflex where a positive (alive) sign is when you turn the head to one side (dont do this if you suspect spine injury) and the eyes will turn to the opposite side to maintain a straight visual axis and if not the eyes will move with the head instead.
- brainstem, 2. oculocephalic
The spinal cord begins at the _____ ____ and ends at the ____ ______ where nerves extend out from the end site and form bundles called _____ ____. _____ ____ also extends from the end site and help attach it to the _____.
- medulla oblongata, 2. conus medullaris, 3. cauda equina, 4. filum terminale, 5. coccyx
mature neurons do not divide and any injury to the ____ nervous system causes ______ loss of damaged neurons.
- Central, 2. Permanent
The _____ processes ____ and ____ information and routes this to other areas of the brain.
- insula, 2. sensory, 3. emotional
_____ shock develops immediately on spinal cord injury resulting in loss of motor, sensory and autonomic function below the level of injury. The _____ is also unable to regulate tempareture due to sympathetic nervous system damage.
- spinal, 2. hypothalamus
_____ is synthesized in the substantia nigra and is important in many processes including pleasure, motivation, sleep, hormonal regulation, sympathetic regulation and memory to name a few.
Dopamine
outcomes of arousal alterations usually are either ______ (morbidity) or ______ which is determined by the extend of brain damage
- disability, 2. mortality
Sympathetic preganglionic fibers and parasympathetic pre/postganglionic fibers release _______ while most sympathetic post ganglionic fibers release _______
- acetylcholine, 2. norepinephrine
In the event of severe compression of an intervertebral disc leading to symptoms such as decreased DTR or neurogenic bladder/bowel reflexes, known as _____ ____ syndrome, emergency surgery may be required.
cauda equina
The _______ plays a central role in social brain emotional processing network which correlates to schizophrenic patients having issues making appropriate social judgments.
amygdala
Whether an action potential occurs depends on the number and frequency of _____ or _____ potentials, which is conceptually known as _____. This term is classified as either _____, which are effects of successive rapid impulses from a single neuron to the same synapse, or _____ which is the combined effects of impulses from a number of neurons on a single synapse at the same time.
- excitatory, 2. inhibitory, 3. summation. 4. Temporal (summation), 5. Spatial (summation)
A common symptom after a lumbar puncture involves a ______
headache
When classifying strokes, you would mainly base it on _____ duration of time. e.g. a TIA deficits occurs less than 24 hours
- symptom
The layers that surround the brain and spinal cord, or ______ are composed of three different types of layers: the ____ ____ is the hardest of the layers, the ____ _____ is a spongy weblike structure, and the ____ ____ adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord and give rise to supporting vessels as well as the _____ ____ which function to produce cerebrospinal fluid.
- meniges, 2. dura mater, 3. arachnoid mater, 4. pia mater, 5. choroid plexus
When assessing CSF labs, some interpretations include low ____ and presence of _____ ____ cells in ________, _____ pressure when there is an obstruction and ______ protein and pressure along with low ______ could indicate a tumor.
- glucose, 2. white blood cells, 3. meningitis, 4. high, 5. high, 6. glucose
When assessing older adults and their reflexes, due to age some reflexes may revert to a primitive phase or may lack a reflex, for example the first reflex to usually disappear in an older patient would be the _____ reflex
ankle
CEA (Carotid Endarterectomy) surgery while utilized to remove plague or restore bloodflow to the carotids, can involve complications including ____ damage, ____ perfusion to the ______ cerebral hemisphere, pneumothorax and stroke.
- nerve, 2. reduced, 3. ipsilateral
An ________ _____ (AVM) is a mass of dilated vessels between arterial and venous systems that lack a muscularis layer and an absence of intervening capillary beds.
Arteriovenous malformation
In ______ shock, which occurs at any injury above T6, is due to absence of _____ activity (caused by another kind of shock ;) ) with symptoms including vasodilation, bradycardia and hypothermia.
- neurogenic, 2. sympathetic
_____ aphasia is usually expressive and receptive and is typically a result from a CVA of the _____ cerebral artery
- global, 2. middle
When thinking of surgical anatomy for arteries of the neck and head, _____ arteries (carotids) feed into the main arteries of the brain and _____ arteries feed to features outside the circulation such as the neck, face and various cavities.
- internal, 2. external
When the word brainstem is used, it actually refers to the combination of the _______ and ______
- midbrain, 2. hindbrain
Accidental Hyperthermia can occur in different forms, including: ____ ____ or severe cramps in the abdomen and extremities that follows prolonged sweating and loss of _____. ____ _____ results from prolonged elevated core or environmental temperatures, causing symptoms such as dehydration, decreased plasma volume and cardiac output. _____ ____ can be lethal and results in high core temperatures around 104 degrees, symptoms include cerebral edema, renal tubular necrosis and hepatic failure… eventually death if untreated. _____ ______ is a lethal complication normally occuring due to inhaled anesthetics and depolarizing muscle relaxants. This occurs due to increased intracellular ____ levels or a decreased intake which leads to sustained muscle contractions and hypermetabolism of muscle cells.
- heat cramps, 2. sodium. 3. heat exhaustion, 4. heat stroke, 5. malignant hyperthermia, calcium
Psychogenic alterations in arousal are different from the others where a person may be unconscious but still __________ awake
physiologically
The lateral part of the spinal cord is responsible for _____ pathways
- autonomic
When discussing different tracts of the spinal cord, there are the ____, ______ and _____ horns which facilitate nerve transmission. The first two usually involve motor outflow with the first one being somatic or voluntary and the second horn being autonomic which contains sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. The last horn mainly is afferent and transfers sensory impulses.
- ventra, 2. lateral, 3. dorsal
ICP is thought to occur due to increased _______ content, _______, excess ____ and ____
- intracranial, 2. hemorrhage, 3. CSF, 4. edema
When assessing ataxia, one notable feature is that if it is present in the _______ the patients eyes being open or closed do not affect their symptoms.
cerebellum
_______ neurotransmitters include tissue injury factors and inflammatory mediators as well as nociceptors releasing peptides such as ATP and substance P when damaged.
Excitatory
When neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites in the post synaptic neuron, there can either be a depolarized/_____ postsynaptic potential, or a hyperpolarized/______ postsynaptic potential.
- excitatory (EPSPs), 2. inhibitory (IPSPs)
When discussing the _______ ___ or where the neuron from the voluntary nervous system synapses with the ______ muscle, this term is ______ to this area alone.
- neuromuscular juntion, 2. skeletal, 3. exclusive
When a patient complains of a _____ headache or the worst headache of their life, you may suspect they also have _______ hemorrhage
- thunderclap, 2. subarachnoid
Hypothermia occurs when body temperatures drop below _____F and around _____F ice crystals form on the inside of cells causing them to rupture and die.
- 95, 2. 82.4
A motor neuron innervating one more muscle cells is called a ____ ___
motor unit
Schizophrenia is defined as a ______ disorder and is described as a break in reality or splitting of the cognitive from the emotinal side of one’s personality.
thought
While ______ stimulates all alpha, beta-1 and some beta-2 receptors, ______ strongly stimulates all four different adrenergic receptors.
- norepinephrine, 2. epinephrine
Examples of things that can cross the BBB (blood brain barrier) include ____, ____ and ____ while things like _____, _____ and _____ _____ are unable to do so.
- lipids, 2. water, 3. gases, 4. electrolytes, 5. proteins, 6. large molecules
While ______ sleep apnea occurs due to a blockage of the upper airway, ____ sleep apnea occurs due to other symptoms such as cardiac or neurological disease.
- obstructive, 2. central
______ is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
glutamate
The most common areas for _______ hemorrhages to occur include the thalamus, cortex/subcortex, pons, caudate nucelus and cerebellar hemispheres
hypertensive
Mechanisms of heat loss occur through several mechanisms, including: ______ (heat loss through electromagnetic waves), _______ (heat loss by direct molecule to molecule transfer), _______ (transfer of heat through gases or liquids and occurs passively), _______, ________ muscle tone, _______ (loss of body water from the surface of the skin and is converted to gas and is secreted by sweating).
- radiation, 2. conduction, 3. convection, 4. vasodilation, 5. decreased, 6. Evaporation
ICP (Intra cranial pressure) normally ranges from _ to __ mmHG
- 5, 2. 15
Dense collections of neurons in the central nervous system are referred to as ____ while in the peripheral nervous system they are called _____ or _____ (a group of relay nerves).
- nuclei, 2. ganglia, 3. plexuses
The Peripheral Nervous system can be divided into the _____ nervous system which consists of motor and sensory pathways that regulate ____ motor control of muscles, and the _____ nervous system which is more involved with regulating the body’s ____ environment via ______ control and specifically can be further divided into the ________ and ______ divisions
- somatic, 2. voluntary, 3. autonomic, 4. internal, 5. involuntary, 6. sympathetic, 7. and parasympathetic
It has been studied that along voltage gated channels, there also exist ____ ___ ___ channels that respond to a variety of physical, chemical and thermal stimuli
Transient Receptor Potential (TRP)
____ ____ injuries are considered to be very dangerous due to them occurring at any level or area of brain injury as well as contributing to later causes of neurodegenerative disease
diffuse axonal
Brain abscesses are collections of pus within the parenchyma and are classified into three categories. _____ brain abscess is related to osteomyelitis in a cranial bone. ______ brain abscess comes from a sinus infection or vascular source and finally a _____ brain abscess mainly arises from a vascular source.
- Extradural, 2. subdural, 3. intracerebral
_____ is a neurotransmitter that is present in many types of muscle movement alterations
dopamine
_____ are specialized structures that provide contact points between neurons. Specialized neurons that work through these structures are either __-_____ , or to move towards, and __-____ which moves away from.
- synpases, 2. pre-synaptic, 3. post-synaptic
______ synthesizes dopamine, which afterwards, dopamine is degraded by _____ ____ (MAO) and _____-_-___ transferases (COMT).
- tyrosine, 2. monoamine oxidase, 3. catechol-O-methyl
While oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath in the ____ nervous system, _____ cells are what form the sheath in the _____ nervous system.
- Central, 2. Schwann, 3. Peripheral
_____ _____ is released by cAMP or cGMP activity in post-synaptic cells and has a variety of effects depending on what system it takes place in. For example in the _______ nervous system this stimulates learning and memory capacity, while in the ______ nervous system there is vasodilation in the body.
- Nitric Oxide, 2. central, 3. peripheral
When assessing ______ spinal reflexes in older adults, you first suspect any damage to the ______ and then look for reflexes including babinski, mass flexion reflex and cross extensor reflex.
- primitive, 2. cerebrum
Once a pair of nerve roots ____ and exit the vertebral foramen, they meet at an intersection known as the _____ nerve and once outside the vertebral column will split again into their respective ____
- joins, 2. spinal, 3. rami
When discussing neuroreceptors, many receptors will correspond with neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine. For example, in the _______ ____ system, which only accepts acetylcholine, acetylcholine will bind to ______ receptors to stimulate a muscle contraction.
- skeletal muscle, 2. nicotinic
________ are chemical signals that allow neurons to influence other neurons when conducting electrical impulses
neurotransmitters
Pseudocholinersterase hydrolyzes ______, and when there is a deficiency this can prolong the effect of the drug, and therefore prolonged paralysis, but up to 8 hours.
succinylcholine
________ pain is a form of chronic pain that is divided into ______ and ______ pain, with the former type being caused by an increase in sensitivity to primary sensory neurons, while the latter type is caused by lesions or changes in the brain/spinal cord due to an increased build up of _ neurons.
- Neuropathic, 2. peripheral, 3. central, 4. C
The ____ lobe contains the ________ area which is responsible for memory, behaviors and thought, and the _______ area that programs movements and contains part of the ____ ____ system (Extrapyramidal system, frontal eye fields).
- frontal, 2. prefrontal, 3. premotor, 4. basal ganglia
The synapse is comprised of a ____ knob, which is found by the __ synaptic neuron, and is separated from the ___ synaptic neuron by a synaptic ____
- synaptic, 2. pre, 3. post, 4. cleft
Pain is explained in a variety of theories, these include: ______ theory, which proposes that pain and touch are carried on different pathways that explains specific injuries but not so much with chronic pain. ______ theory proposes that somatic sensing organs respond to different stimuli levels and are encoded in the central nervous system. The __-___ theory explains that pain is modulated by a balance of impulses conducted to the spinal cord and work as a ‘gate’ and can partially open or close depending on the stimuli and regulates pain transmission to centers in the central nervous system. Lastly, the ____ theory builds off of the previous one except to explain complications such as phantom limb pain by stating that stimuli may triggers patterns but may not produce them necessarily and are activated by sensory inputs from the affected periphery but may also originate in the brain without any external input. Despite these theories, no single theory can explain all types of pain.
- Specificity, 2. Pattern, 3. gate-control, 4. neuromatrix
The three major structural divisions of the brain are the _____, which includes the telencephalon and the diencephalon, the _____, which connects the pons to the diencephalon, and the _____ which holds the cerebellum, pons and medulla and these three particular structures in the _____ together make up the _______.
- forebrain, 2. midbrain, 3. hindbrain, 4. hindbrain, 5. brainstem
_______ conduction is the process of myelin allowing action potential to occur and leap between nodes of Ranvier instead of flowing along the entire membrane. Disorders of this process include Multiple Sclerosis and Guillain-Barre syndrome.
Saltatory
When discussing the Autonomic nervous system, the two categories sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate particular areas including the ______ division and the _____ division respectively.
- thoracolumbar, 2. craniosacral
In order to assess brain death, there must be a known _____ or ______ disease and cannot be caused by any ________ drugs or _______
- structural, 2. metabolic, 3. depressant, 4. hypothermia
When analyzing brain waves, a _____ frequency corerlates with inccreased cerebral activity.
higher
Clinically important motor pathways include the _______, ________, _______ tracts, ______, _____ and ______ tracts
- corticospinal, 2. cortiobulbar(brainstem), 3. pyramidal (precise motor movements), 4. reticulospinal (inhibits/excites spinal activity), 5. vestibulospinal (arises in pons, induces rapid extensor muscle contraction), 6. rubrospinal (muscle movement and fine control in upper extremities, arises from red nucleus)
ALS (Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) is the loss of ____ and _____ motor neurons resulting in progressive muscle weakness, there are no _____, _____ or ____ symptoms and typically affects muscle groups causing gradual flaccidness and paresis.
- upper, 2. lower, 3. mental, 4. sensory, 5. autonomic
Hyperthermia is elevation of body temperature that is not caused by the hypothalamus, at _____F nerve damage can occur and at _______F death results.
- 105.8, 2. 109.4
______ ________ is considered occuring after seizure activity lasts greater than __ minutes and is life threatening. Treatment includes oxygen, parenteral muscles relaxants or general anesthesia
- status epilepticus, 2. 30
Pain is an important mechanism that can signal distress or possible disease in the body and is not limited to just injuries. It is classified as a ____ rather than a clinical sign, diagnosis or disease of itself.
symptom
_____ ______ occurs when someone experiences pain that is intense enough to mask pain from other areas that are less stimluated.
Perceptual Dominance
______ ____ are a family of neuropeptides that inhibit pain across the nervous system by preventing the release of excitatory neurotransmitters and are classified as four types: _______ are the most prevalent of the group and are concentrated to the thalamus and dorsal horn. ______ are produced in the brain and binds to receptors in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. _______ are the most potent of the group and impede signals to the brain and also play roles in mood disorders and drug addiction. Finally, _____ bind to receptors in the brain, brainstem and gastrointestinal tract and include antiinflammatory as well as pain relieving effects.
- Endogenous opiods, 2. Enkephalins, 3. Endorphins, 4. Dynorphins, 5. Endomorphins (1 and 2)
ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) is thought to occur due to an accumulation of _____ in the CNS leading to over excitability of anterior horn cells. Eventually neurons die off where normally they would innervate skeletal muscles and thus cause a loss of _____ motor neuron function
- glutamate, 2. lower
______ area constitutes the sensory speech area and is responsible for reception and interpretation of speech.
Wernicke
Nociceptors are categorized based on stimulus and the associated axons, they are classified as: _-___ fibers which are stimulated by severe mechanical deformation or extremes in temperature. _ ____ (unmyelinated) are polymodal and are stimulated by mechanical, thermal and chemical nociceptors and transmit slow dull pain. _-__ fibers are large myelinated fibers that transmit touch and vibration but do not cause pain.
- A-delta, 2. C Fibers, 3. A-beta
A _____ skill fracture can be tricky to diagnosis but may present with ecchymosis around the eyes, ears and nose or may have spinal fluid leaking from ear or nose. Scans may show air in the sinuses or intracranial air.
basilar
When you hear a patient describe a headache as “worst headache of my life” you should immediately be concerned for _______ ____ and look for meningeal signs such as stiff neck and other neurological findings.
subarachnoid hemorrhage
During neural development in children, ______ cells will separate from the neural tube and form the _____ ______ which later develops into the peripheral nervous system.
- neuroectodermal, 2. neural crest.
Neurofibromatosis can be categorized as type __ and __ where the former type involves cutaneous lesions that can invade organs and blood vessels while causing symptoms including epilepsy, blindness and deafness, while the latter only affects the CNS but may lead to brain tumor development.
- 1, 2. 2
The ____ _____ is the lowest area of the brainstem and regulated activities such as heart rate, blood pressure, various reflexes such as sneezing and vomiting.
medulla oblongata
Certain types of posturing can indicate neural damage, for example ______ posture occurs due to upper motor neuron dysfunction and is seen as flexion of the upper extremities and feet extending outward, versus ______ posture which shows as all four limbs extended and an indication of _____ or ______ damage
- decorticate, 2. decerebrate, 3. brain, 4. brainstem
The ____ consists of the cerebral cortex (the largest portion of the brain) and basal ganglia, the surface is covered by ___ or convolutions that help expand the cortical surface area and are further separate by grooves or ____.
- telencephalon, 2. gyri, 3. sulci
Neuroanatomic structures found to be associated with schizophrenia development include reduced ______ and _____ _____ size, enlargement of the ____ and ____ ventricles and widening of the ________ fissures and ____
- thalamus, 2. temporal lobe, 3. lateral, 4. third, 5. frontocortical, 5. sulci
A cognitive cerebral function requires an intact ______ ______ system
reticular activating
Human thermoregulation is achieved through heat ________, _______ and ____. With the normal body temperature ranging from ____ to _____ degrees Fahrenheit.
- production, 2. conservation, 3. loss, 4. 97.2, 5. 99.9
It should be noted that while there are named sections of the vertebral column that correlate with nerves going in and out all the way to the coccyx, the spinal cord itself actually only extends to the end of ___/___ of the vertebral column.
L1/L2
Bipolar disorder is divided into two types: Type ___ involves manic episodes that are preceded by a hypomanic or depressive episode, while Type ___ involves a prolonged period of depression and a hypomanic episode.
- 1, 2. 2
_____ ____ are units that respond to stimuli and provide protection during motor output to muscles or glands.
Reflex arcs
The process in which synapses change in number and strength is known as synaptic or _____(____)
neuroplasticity (plasticity)
_____ is a defect of pattern recognition that typically affects tactile, visual or auditory senses and typically occurs in the interpretive areas of the cerebral cortex (temporo-occipital area)
agnosia
The Basal Ganglia system is composed of the ____ _____, ____ and ____ ____
- caudate nucleus, 2. putamen, 3. globus pallidus
The main neurotransmitter in the GI tract is ______ which is also where 95% of this chemical lives.
serotonin
In Alzheimer Dementia, ______ will accumulate in neurons and form _______ _____ which will lead to eventual death, this can also deposit in the smooth muscle of cerebral arteries causing a disturbance in blood flow.
- amyloid, 2. neurofibrillary tangle
Animal models demonstrate that depression like behavior correlates with atrophy of neurons in the _______ as well as reduced production of _______ neurons/factors
- hippocampus, 2. hippocampal
Nociception occurs in four phases: ______, occurs when tissue is damaged or exposed to chemicals and translates to electrophysiological activity, ______ is the conduction of pain along a-delta and c fibers which moves into the ____ horn of the spinal cord and branch into the dorsolateral tract. This stimuli then terminates at the _______ _____ and ascends to the brain through spinothalamic tracts and are then projected to the somatosensory cortex for interpretation. Then, _______ occurs within the reticular, limbic systems and the cerebral cortex and interact together to from the sensory-discrimination system and identifies characteristics of the pain. Finally, ______ occurs to regulate transmission of pain signals and can occur at any point during the process of pain.
- transduction, 2. transmission, 3. dorsal, 4. substantia gelatinosa, 4. reception, 5. modulation
The ____ area, inferior to the frontal lobe, is an important center for speech and language processing.
Broca
Clinically important sensory pathways include the ______ column which carries fine touch, vibration and proprioceptive information, as well as the ______ and _____ spinothalamic tracts which are involved with vague touch as well as pain and temperature perception, respectively.
- posterior, 2. anterior (vague touch), 3. lateral (pain, temperature perception)
Seizures are characterized by a ____ phase, or increased muscle contraction and tone and a _____ phase which is an alternating cycle of contraction and relaxation of muscles.
- tonic, 2. clonic
When assessing structural alterations of arousal, generally causes of these include infection, vascular changes, neoplasms and injury. The location of these changes are divided into either _____ or _____ with the former being above the tentorium cerebelli and the latter below it and with it associated areas of the brain.
- supratentorial, 2. infratentorial
Vertebral injuries in adults occur typically at vertebrae __-__ (cervical), __-__ (same as prior) and ___ to ___ (Thoracic-lumbar) or the most mobile portions of the vertebral column.
- C1-C2, 2. C4-C7, 3. T10-L2
The brainstem has areas adjacent to the ____ involving arousal which make for a good site of assessment when wanting to determine any issues with brainstem function, for example ischemia or hypoxia can produce ____ ____
- pupils, 2. fixed pupils
_____ ______ defects can occur as a result of the neural folds failing to fold and seal properly in development leading complications such as brainstem displacement, spina bifida and meningocele
Neural tube
When taking MAOIs it is important to stress that patients should not eat ______ rich foods due to causing a hypertensive crisis.
tyramine
An example of nerves affected by the ______ _____ system involve the ____ nerves, which is because these nerves flow out of the cranio-sacral tracts
- autonomic parasympathetic, 2. cranial
Typical neurons only have one ____, which is wrapped in a lipid material called _____ that provides insulation and is formed by ______
- axon, 2. myelin, 3. oligodendrocytes
Along the precentral gyrus forms the ___ _____ ____ area which includes axons traveling in and out of this area forming the _____ system, which includes the corticobulbar tract and provides voluntary muscle control of the head and neck as well as the corticospinal tract that descends into the ____ ____ and provides voluntary muscle control to the rest of the body.
- primary voluntary motor, 2. pyramidal, 3. spinal cord
When thinking of cerebral blood flow, the range of optimal perfusion is __ - ___ mm Hg
- 60, 2. 180
The ______ areas of the brain are most sensitive to hypotensive changes during anesthesia and is usually found between the _____ and ____ cerebral artery circulations.
- watershed, 2. anterior, 3. middle
In general, the sympathetic nervous system promotes responses regarding the _____ of the individual and the most important function involves regulation of _____ ___
- protection 2. vasomotor tone
The Nervous System is divided into two systems, the _____ system is composed of the brain and spinal cord, while the _____ system is composed of the cranial and spinal nerves.
- central, 2. peripheral
Thermoregulation is primarily mediated by the _______. C fibers and A-delta fibers provide peripheral temperature information and receptors in the spinal cord and trigeminal ganglia provide central temperature information to the source of regulation.
Hypothalamus
During incidents of fever, _____ ____ (AVP), ______-_____ hormone and ______-____ factor are released from the brain and act as antipyretics.
- arginine vasopressin, 2. a-melanocyte-stimulating, 3. corticotropin-releasing
In therapeutic forms, hypothermia protects the body via decreased _______ ___, ____ consumption and threshold of ______ delivery.
- metabolic rate, 2. ATP, 3. oxygen
_____ is an extracellular matrix protein that is involved in neuronal migration during development and is found to be reduced in the ________ cortex and ________ in schizophrenia. This protein is also found in interneurons that contain _____
- Reelin, 2. prefrontal, 3. hippocampus 4. GABA
Neurons are composed of a ___ ___, _____ and ____
cell body, dendrites, axons
If strokes are diagnosed as ischemic, therapeutic treatent via _______ agents must be given within __ to ___ hours of first symptom onset.
- thrombolytic, 2. 3, 3. 4.5
_____ ____ serves as a primary regulator for blood flow in the ____ nervous system by acting as a vasodilator.
- Carbon Dioxide, 2. Central
____ is a multi phase process that provides restoration and promotes memory consolidation. Complex neural circuits interact with neurotransmitters and hormones to control the timing in coordiation with circadian rhythms.
Sleep
The ______ of ______ provides alternative routes for blood flow when a contributing artery is obstructed blood flow and is formed by posterior cerebral arteries
Circle of Willis
Three major arteries that perfuse the cerebellum and brainstem include: the _____ _____ cerebellar artery, ______ ______ cerebellar arter and the _____ cerebellar arteries.
- posterior inferior, 2. anterior inferior, 3. superior
Cerebral edema is thought to occur in three forms including ______,______ and _____ edema with the first type being the most common in clinical settings
- vasogenic (permeability), 2. cytotoxic (metabolic), 3. Interstitial (hydrostatic pressure)
Pyramidal tract disease tends to affect all _______ _____ activity (voluntary) and results from an _____ _____ lesion
- skeletal motor, 2. upper motor
Neurons are structurally classified on the number of _______ or _____ extending from the cell body. This includes four types of configurations: ______ neurons have one process that shortly branches after leaving the body, an example includes the retina. _____ neurons also have one process, but has dendritic portions extend away from the ____ nervous system and axons projecting towards it, examples of these include most sensory neurons. ____ neurons have two distinct process and connects rod and cone cells of the retina. ______ neurons are the most common of these and have multiple processes, an example includes motor neurons.
- processes/projections, 2. Unipolar, 3. Psuedounipolar, 4. Central, 5. Bipolar, 6. Multipolar
When assessing deep tendon reflexes, the _____ neuron is important in maintaining muscle tone.
gamma
When opiate neuropeptides are created, they are cleaved from a large compound called ____-_______ (POMC) which when released also releases _______ ______ hormone and _____ _____ hormone.
- Pro-opiomelanocortin, 2. adrenocortical stimulating, 3. melanocyte stimulating
Cerebrospinal fluid protects intracranial and spinal structures from ____ and ____ and also prevents the brain from tugging on meninges, nerve roots and blood vessels via ______
- jolts, 2. blows, 3. buoyancy
When a stimulus is sent out from the spinal cord which involves the _______ neuron, _____ is always released as a neurotransmitter.
- presynaptic, 2. acetylcholine
While nutrition exchange is not possible throug the _____ ___, it can occur at nodes of _____ where axons are not insulated and can be branched by axons as well.
- myelin sheath, 2. Ranvier.
Four areas where hemorrhagic strokes are thought to occur include _____, ______, _____ and _______
- subarachnoid, 2. subdural, 3. Epidural, 4. Intraparenchymal
The ____ _____ falls between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater and gives space to veins, while the _____ ____ is between the arachnoid and pia mater and holds cerebrospinal fluid.
- subdural space, 2. subarachnoid space
The _____ lobe facilitates motor and sensory communication via _______ ____
- parietal, 2. association fibers
When looking at cranial nerves, it is important to remember that there are _____ sympathetic fibers associated and are focused instead going out of _____-_____ areas
- no, 2. thoraco-lumbar
Peripheral nerves can repair themselves through local changes and is known as ____ _____. This process involves ______ and ____ cells eating any damaged tissue. the cell body undergoes ______ with swelling occuring in the axon terminal, causing degeneration and loss of contact with the ________ membrane. Eventually new terminal sprouts project from the proximal segment of the axon and are guided by _____ cells.
- axonal reaction, 2. macrophages, 3. Schwann, 4. chromatolysis, 5. postsynaptic, 6. Schwann
The principle of _______ applies when branches of various neurons group and influence a single neuron.
convergence
Five types of traumatic injury that can alter temperature regulation include: _____ nervous system trauma, _______ injuries, _______ shock, _____ _____, and ______ _____
- central, 2. accidental, 3. hemorrhagic, 4. major surgery, 5. thermal burns
Malformations of the spine can include _____ and _____ where the former is a structural defect in the __ _______ of the vertebral arch, mainly found in L5. While the latter is an _____ defect that allows vertebra to slide forward in relation to the verbra below occuring at L5-S1
- Spondylolysis, 2. Spondylolisthesis, 3. pars interarticularis, 4. osseous
_____ control is the process of cerebral impulses controlling functions on the opposite side of the body.
contralateral
When discussing clinical descriptors for pain, _____ and _____ pain are the most common forms expressed. The former term is relieved after any chemical mediators are removed and can stimulate the _______ nervous system resulting in symptoms such as increased heart rate and hypertension. The latter term can persist for more than 3 to 6 months and over time can cause structural changes to the brain.
- acute, 2. chronic, 3. autonomic
You should avoid giving ______ drugs to patients with present Lewy bodies.
neuroleptic
Regions of the brain and spinal cord with a high level of _____ make up the ___ matter, while areas with lower levels (or areas mainly of cell bodies) are ____ matter.
- myelination, 2. white, 3. gray
____ is an important ion when discussing action potential of various muscles such as skeletal and cardiac muscles. One key difference though is that with _____ muscles the relationship is inverse while in _____ muscles the relationship is direct, or if one is increased so is the other.
- Calcium, 2. Skeletal, 3. Cardiac
Three types of alterations of arousal are ______, _____ and ______
- structural, 2. metabolic, 3. psychogenic
If there is damage or the axon becomes severed, it may attempt to repair itself back to the point of attachment which is called _____ ______, however in the event the damage is too severe, _____ ____ can occur resulting in loss of sensation and effect.
- axonal sprouting, 2. denervation atrophy
The cranial floor is divided into three fossae which act as exit sites for cranial nerves, blood vessels and the spinal cord and include the _____,____ and _____ fossa.
- anterior (frontal lobe), 2. middle (temporal), 3. posterior (cerebellum)
The ____ ____ _____ (BBB) selectively inhibits potentially harmful substances in the blood from entering interstitial spaces of the brain. This is highly permeable to water, carbon dioxide, oxygen and lipid soluble solutions and non permeable to plasma proteins (immune functions) and large non-lipid molecules.
Blood Brain Barrier
Due to serotonin having a variety of effects, it has been classified into ____ types of receptors. The first receptor is ______ and affects presynaptic neurotrainsmitter release. The second receptor is ______ and affects postsynaptic receptors. The third receptor mainly affects the central area of the brain responsible for nausea and is considered ______ as well.
- 3, 2. inhibitory, 3. excitatory, 4. excitatory
CT scans are effective at evaluating whether a stroke is _____ or _____
- ischemic, 2. hemorrhagic
Neurons are functionally classified as ______ neurons, which carry impulses, _____ neurons which transmit impulses from neuron to neuron and are mainly found in the _____ nervous system, and finally ___ neurons transmit impulses away from the ____ nervous system to effector organs, for example the skeletal muscle has a special structure known as a _____-_____ junction which allows for axons to meet at end processes.
- sensory, 2. association, 3. central, 4. motor, 5. neuro-muscular
Normal sleep has two phases that involve ____ ___ ______ (REM) and non-____.
- rapid eye movement, 2. REM
The cerebellum, contained in the _____, fine tunes motor control and helps maintain balance through neural pathways with the medulla. It also functions via _____ (same) control versus the cerebral cortex which functions via ______ control of the body.
- hindbrain, 2. ipsilateral, 3. contralateral
Causes of migraines are explained via the _______ theory or that abnormal trigeminic nerve activity due to changes in _______ pathways as well as stimulation of c fibers of trigeminal sensory nerves leading to a release of vasoactive peptides (substance, P, calcitonin gene realted peptide (CGRP), neurokinin A) and invasion from mast cells.
- neuropeptide, 2. serotonin
SSRIs should be avoided with other anti-psychotic medications due to inhibition of _-__ cytochrome isoenzymes which can lead to ______ ______ causing autonomic hyperactivity, rigidity, hyperthermia and eventually coma/death
- P-450, 2. serotonin syndrome
When discussing resting action potential and the voltage of typical mammalian nerve cells, usually the amount is around (-) ___ millivolts and without the ____ _______ to hold the potential charge, we would blow up!
- 90, 2. cell membrane
______ and ______ are saclike cysts that can develop due to neural tube defects. The former is a mild form of spina bifida and contains CSF, while the latter is similiar except it involves a portion of the spinal cord and associated nerves.
- meningocele, 2. myelomeningocele
Memory can be divided into two categories: ______ memory involves learning and remembering personal events as well as factual information, while _____ memory is known as reflexive or implicit memories such as habits, skills and actions.
- Declarative, 2. Nondeclarative
Within the nervous system there are three components that mediate the ______, _____ and _____ to pain. These include _____ ______, which ascent to higher centers of the central nervous system, the _______ ____ located in the diencephalon and hindbrain and ______ _____ that descend from the CNS to the dorsal horns of the spinal cord.
- sensation, 2. perception, 3. response, 4. afferent pathways, 5. interpretive centers, 6. efferent pathways
When assessing for possible meningitis, one hallmark assessment involves ____ _____ which causes involuntary hip flexion and muscle spasms, it is important to realize that children ___ develop this symptom in the case of meningitis.
- nuchal rigidity, 2. don’t
Acetylcholine utlilizes two types of receptors, the _____ and _____ receptors, where the former stimulates dopamine.
- nicotinic, 2. muscarinic
The ______ lobe holds the primary _____ cortex (Brodmann area 17).
- Occipital, 2. Visual
Surrounding gray matter, _____ ____ forms pathways called spinal tracts which allows the spinal cord to carry impulses to various areas of the nervous system.
- white matter
_____ cells provide structure, protection and nutrition to neurons and faciliate neurotransmission. These cells consist of astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes in the _____ nervous system and also include Schwann (neurilemma) and satellite cells in the _____ nervous system.
- Neuroglial, 2. Central, 3. Peripheral
The ______ lobe holds the primary _____ cortex (Brodmann area 41 and 42).
- Temporal, 2. auditory
Ischemia in the brain leads to a release of ______ which is a known excitotoxin that causes an influx of _____ into neuron cells and causing hyperexcitability via ________ membrane potential.
- glutamate, 2. calcium, 3. depolarizing
Ischemic strokes are mainly classified as ______, _______ and _____. The first type involves occlusions arisng from thrombus formation in arteries supplying the brain and intracranial vessels. The second kind results from the first where a thrombus will break off and release smaller parts of the thrombus to travel through the vessels which can lead to additional episodes of stroke. The last type involves mainly perivascular edema which can become likely due to risk factors such as hypertension, smoking and hyperlipidemia.
- Thrombotic, 2. Embolic, 3. Lacunar
_-__ __ can help identify bony defects, erosion or calcified structures
x-ray films
When comparing Pain threshold and tolerance, ________ is the point at which a stimulus is perceived as pain, while _______ is the amount of time or intensity of pain someone will endure before starting pain responses, which can decrease over time with repeated exposure.
- Threshold, 2. Tolerance
In an area of hypoxia, the surrounding area called the ____ _____ is not completely affected by the damage and can be reversed if _______ agents are given within 3 hours.
- ischemic penumbra, 2. thrombolytic
_______ induced hyperalgesia is thought to be induced through long term use or even just one use of these drugs via increased sensitization of pro-nocioceptive NMDA pathways.
Opioid
Within the _____ nervous system, spinal nerves will meet in the region of the _____ _____ and form the spinal nerve trunk, after converging the nerve divides into anterior and posterior ____ (branches). Anterior sides will form ____ (fiber networks) and branch into the peripheral nerves, while the posterior side provides sensory signals to various peripheral nerve sites.
- peripheral, 2. intervertebral foramen, 3. rami, 4. plexuses
Regarding pain and temperature signals, the _____ _____ tract carries signals pertaining to touch and proprioception, while the _____-_____ _______ tract sends pain and temperature signals to the Thalamus and correlates with the Limbic system.
- dorsal leminscal, 2. antero-lateral spinothalamic
Heat production is initiated by the ______ ______-_____ _____-_____ hormone (TSH-RH) which can also be reversed in the event of the body needing to lose heat.
Hypothalamic thyrotropin-stimulating hormone-releasing
The _________ system is a part of the motor control system that causes involuntary reflexes and has a stabilizing effect on motor control.
extrapyramidal
Most CNS disorders produce _____ and ______
- nausea, 2. vomiting
In order to maintain optimal neurologic function, the body must maintain an equilibrium of _____ _____ and _____ ____ in accordance to the pH of the body and when there is elevated _____ _____ or pH, blood flow will _____ to regulate the balance.
- carbon dioxide, 2. carbonic acid, 3. carbon dioxide, 4. increase
