Cellular/Tissue Biology Flashcards
During _________ the negative polarity of the resting membrane potential is reestablished.
repolarization
____ ____ can persist in dead cells due to lysosomes being unable to break it down.
Uric Acid
The ____ _______ enzyme is responsible for the chemical buffer system that helps convert bicarbonate and the hydronium ion into _______ _______
- Carbonic Anhydrase, 2. Carbon Dioxide
Homeostasis tries to keep the body in a healthy state of balance by regulating _____ , ______ , and ______
- Acid-base balance, 2. Temperature , 3. Membrane electrical charges
The three kinds of cell deaths include:
- Necrosis, 2. Apoptosis, 3. Nutritional starvation of the cell
Necrosis can be categorized as four major types:
- Liquefactive, 2. Coagulative, 3. Caseous, 4. Fatty
______ occurs when oxygen is not restored within the cell causing cavities to develop within the cytoplasm
Vacuolation
When digested, Fats are broken down into _____ and ______
- fatty acids, 2. glycerol
______ _______ prevent diffusion among cells
Tight Junctions
A stable internal environment.
Homeostasis
During Hypothermia, studies have shown that ____ is increased due to decreased perfusion of the heart due to increased ____ concentration.
- ROS, 2. Superoxide
Two common areas for proteins to accumulate include:
- Epithelial cells of the renal convulated tubule, 2. B Lymphocytes
The human body is about _____ percent water or around _____ liters per average adult
- 57, 2. 40
The amount of hydrostatic pressure required to oppose osmosis is known as ________ of a solution
Osmotic Pressure
Exocytosis is the ________ or _______ of material from intracellular vesicles at the cell surface
Secretion or discharge
One important aspect of the cell membrane is that it is _____ __________ which will allow certain things to pass through such as water and lipids but not _____ or water soluble solutions such as ____ and ____ without a means of diffusion or binding to channels.
- Semi-permeable, 2. Ions, 3. proteins, 4. carbohydrates
Any other body cell that is not related to egg cells are reproduced through the processes of _______ and _________
- Mitosis, 2. Cytokinesis
When it comes to membrane transport, passive transport differs from active transport where molecules will flow from an area of ______ concentration to an area of _____ concentration
- High, 2. Low
In _____ feedback systems, the body will produce as much as it needs to carry out a function, this isn’t the case in every system and can sometimes be the result of a pathological issue.
Positive
If unconjugated bilirubin binds to the plasma membrane of a cell, it could injure the cell by two methods:
- Causing a loss of cellular proteins, 2. Uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation
A ____ will resist changes to the acid-base balance
Buffer
The body is mainly composed of three embryonic types of tissues. The ____ is found in the nerves, eyes and skin. The ______ is mesenchymal and located in muscles and the genitourinary tract. The _____ is found prominently in visceral organs.
- Ectoderm, 2. Mesoderm, 3. Endoderm
What are the two major second messenger pathways?
- cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) , 2. Ca++
_____ is the movement of cells/organisms and this process is facilitated by _____ _____ to allow movement in and out of cells.
- Chemotaxis, 2. Adhesion Molecules
__________ is defined as an increase in cell size and is classified as either pathological or physiological.
Hypertrophy
CAMs (Cell Adhesion Molecules) are comprised of what four protein families?
- Integrins, 2. Cadherins, 3. Selectins, 4. immunoglobins
A mechanism of the ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) that can measure cell stress is known as _________
UPR (unfolded protein response)
Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide and Steroid Hormones are examples of _____ molecules
nonpolar
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum is involved in the synthesis of these hormones:
Steroid Hormones
When using direct cell to cell communication, ___ _____ are a good example of allowing certain cells such as ____ or _____ cells to be able to synchronize contractile responses or facilitate action potential via ion transport.
- Gap Junctions, 2. Muscle, 3. Uterine
When acids create hydrogen ions/bases, acids ending in ___ will create bases ending in ___ or become what the parent acid was prior to dissociation.
- ic, 2. ate
_______ or Connective Tissue Cells, create these three kinds of fibers: _______ , ________ , and ______
- Fibroblasts, 2. Collagen, 3. Elastin, 4. Reticular
Two types of hyperplasia include _________ and ________ with the latter primarily affecting estrogen dependent organs.
- Compensatory, 2. Hormonal
______ is defined as a complete lack of oxygen.
Anoxia
Even when oxygen is restored to the cell, the presence of reactive oxygen intermediates can cause damage to the cell membrane and overload the mitochondria with calcium by ________ ______
Reperfusion (Reoxygenation) Injury
The _____ ______ utilizes signaling to allow an outside chemical to make contact with a cell and form a second chemical on the inside which typically is ____ or ___ that will carry out the message to the cell, which is then broken down by ____
- Second Messenger, 2. cAMP, 3. cGMP, 4. phosphodiesterase
The total number of ______ is fixed in the nervous system at birth and cannot be replaced.
Neurons
In adults, the majority of fluid volume is _____ the cell while children tend to have more fluid _____ the cell
- Outside, 2. Inside
Peroxisomes get their name by using enzymes that utilize ______ to remove hydrogen from specific substrates which produces Hydrogen Peroxide (H202)
Oxygen
The most common site for lipids to accumulate is in the ________
Liver
Reproduction of ______ (sperm and egg cells) occur through the process of _________
- gametes, 2. meiosis
Enzymes are a type of _____ that typically end in the letters ___
- Protein, 2. ‘ase’
The most obvious signs of ______ death include the cessation of _______ and ________
- Somatic, 2. Respirations, 3. Circulation
Atrophy can be classified as _______ or ________ despite cells showing the same basic changes.
Physiological, Pathological
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) not only stores energy but also _______ energy
transports
The two types of solutes include _____ and ______
Electrolytes and non electrolytes (glucose, urea, creatinine)
Intracellular ________ is the main protector against mercury induced CNS and kidney damage.
Glutathione
ROS can be inactivated by the enzyme _________ __________
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)
The space between cells within tissues are separated by _____ _____
Interstitial Fluids
The Peroxidative Reaction Formula is: (Or removal of a hydrogen)
H2O2 + R1H2 -> R1 + 2H2O2
______ is digestion of any food stuff in its smallest form, i.e. amino acids. which takes place _____ the cell. (Think of this from a cellular standpoint and not a ‘respiratory’ standpoint which is ventilation.)
- Respiration, 2. Inside
This vitamin affects amino acid transfer reactions
Pyroxidine (B6)
Three types of epithelial cell layers include ______ , _______ , and ________
- Simple, 2. Stratified, 3. Pseudo-stratified
Functions of the Nucleus include: _____, ______, and _______
Cell division, control of genetic information, and replication/repair of DNA
Tissue with ______ are less likely to be affected by radiation due to the lack of ____ produced by radiolysis of water
- hypoxia, 2. ROS
One example of a protein buffer found in red blood cells includes _____ which acts as an _____ since it is INSIDE the cell
- Hemoglobin, 2. Anion
________ ________ is considered the most common chemical asphyxiant
Carbon Monoxide
Cancer cells are known to travel by three methods:
- Direct Invasion, 2. Hematologic (bloodstream), 3. Lymphatic Channels
These junctions enhance communication among cells
Gap Junctions
During metabolic failure due to ______ , the lack of _____ permits excessive influx of _____ into the cell which will also bring in more _______
- Hypoxia, 2. ATP, 3. Sodium, 4. Water
A ______ is a chemical made by cells that can affect other cells’ growth and activity.
Cytokine
_____ is defined as the number of charges a charged molecule has
Valence
Most of the ATP that is generated occurs during the __________________
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs)
a rectal temperature of _____ due to heat sroke is considered life threatening.
41C (106F)
Since 2001, no active vaccines contain _______ which is a derivative of _____ ______ with the exception of the inactivated influenza vaccine.
- Thimerosal, 2. Ethyl Mercury
Heat-shock proteins tag certain proteins with ______ when it is time for the protein to be degraded
ubiquitin
___ gangrene is often caused by an infection from the _____ species
- Gas, 2. Clostridium
Three types of epithelial cell shapes include _______, ______ , and ________
- Squamous, 2. Cuboidal, 3. Columnar
_______ combines with Ferric iron in cytochrome oxidase which prevents intracellular use of oxygen.
Cyanide
_________ __________ are a result of cells being unable to utilize oxygen
Asphyxial Injuries
Bases (alkali) accept ______ while Acids give away ______
- Hydrogen + , 2. Hydrogen +
______ Necrosis is a combination of coagulative and liquefactive necrosis and gets its name from looking like clumped cheese. TB is the most common cause of this necrosis.
Caseous
One important protein in the cell cycle known as ______ which causes phosphorylation (activation) of the _____ ______ ______ that inhibits cell replication and allows cell to replicate again.
- MYC, 2. retinoblastoma susceptibility protein
When it comes to chemical injuries to cells, the two general methods this occurs include:
- Direct Toxicity, 2. Conversion to toxic metabolites/intermediates
_________ increases the risk of decompression sickness due to immersion of the body in water _____ venous return to the heart.
- Dehydration, 2. increasing
Eukaryotes tend to be ______ and have _______ anatomy compared to Prokaryotes
Larger, extensive
Proteins are composed of _____ molecules including ______ , ______ , ______ and ______
- Organic, 2. Carbon, 3. Oxygen, 4. Hydrogen, 5. Nitrogen
_______ are bodies between cells
Desmosomes
The three major enzyme systems responsible for metabolizing alcohol to ______ include:
- acetalydehyde, 2. alcohol deydrogenase (ADH), 3. Microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system (MEOS;CYP2E1), 4. Catalase
When increasing the number of available receptors for the purposes of ligands to bind to this is known as __ _______ and vice versa, decreasing the amount of receptors is ___ _____
- Up regulation, 2. Down regulation
The main components of cell membranes are _____ and ________
Lipids, proteins
Depolarization occurs as _____ flows into the cell as a result of membrane potential ________ , causing the cell to be _________ charged and polarity _______
- Sodium, 2. decreasing/moves forward, 3. positively, 4. neutralized
In pregnancy, ____ is capable of regulating gene transcription and the production of developmental cells in the placenta
ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species)
Cell suicide is known as _______
apoptosis
______ is an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue due to increased cellular division.
Hyperplasia
When Acids dissociate in a solution to form Hydrogen ions, the leftover of the acids forms a _______ ________
Conjugate Base
Certain electrolytes in the ECF include ______ , _______ , and _______
- Sodium, 2. Bicarbonate, 3. Chloride
The Four Phases of Mitosis in order are:
- Prophase, 2. metaphase, 3. anaphase, 4. telophase
Free Radicals have been observed to be able to be countered by __________ which are prevalent in foods such as _____ and ______ as well as certain vitamins and may even be able to prevent cancer.
- Antioxidants, 2. Fruits, 3. Vegetables
ROS can also regulate signaling components and mediate modifications of molecules in intracellular signaling by ________ ________
redox signaling
The eight main functions of cells are:
- Movement, 2. Conductivity, 3. Metabolic absorption, 4. Secretion, 5. Excretion, 6. Respiration, 7. Reproduction, 8. Communication
Enzymes within the Mitochondria that are apart of the respiratory chain are responsible for the cell’s ____
ATP
______ __ ____ is a term used when cell dysplasia penetrates the basement membrane
carcinoma in situ
When intracellular enzymes leak into peripheral circulation due to cell injury, this provides a _____ ____ for evaulating tissue specific cellular injuries.
Diagnostic tool
When thinking of osmotic pressure, if a barrier allows for the movement of _____ then that by itself will move from a ____ concentration to ____ concentration, however if the barrier does not allow this then ____ must move towards ___ to equalize distribution.
- Solutes, 2. Higher, 3. Lower, 4. Water, 5. Solutes
Cells communicate with each other by what three methods?
- Display plasma membrane signaling molecules, 2. Target protein receptors inside the target cell by allowing the signal molecule to enter the said cell and 3. Forming protein channels that coordinate adjacent cell activity.
The three kinds of muscles tissue include:
- Skeletal, 2. Smooth, 3. Cardiac
Melanin accumulation can lead to the development of _____ and is also present in _______ ______
- Freckles, 2. Addison’s Disease
When thinking of non lipid based ligands, these must pass through cell membrane receptors such as:
- G protein receptors (cAMP, DAG-IP3, second messenger system), 2. Transmembrane receptors, 3. Ligand gated ion channel receptors
Electrolytes dissociate into _____ when placed in solution.
Ions
ROS is known for causing a great deal of side effects within the cell but the three important ones include:
- Lipid peroxidation, 2. Damage to DNA, 3. Protein malfunction as well as fragmentation of polypeptide chains
______ is the permanent proliferative arrest of cells due to various stressors and possibly causes aging.
Senescence
In _____ feedback systems, the body will continue production of a product until the cycle finishes and starts over but then will switch off the production in order to prevent excessive work
Negative
When thinking of fluid concentration and medical fluids, three main types of fluids are ____, ____ and _____ the first being considered equal to the body’s normal concentration of fluid, the second involving more water than solutes and the third having more concentration of solutes than water.
- Isotonic, 2. Hypotonic, 3. Hypertonic
Autophagic cell death is classified as ________ and is described as multiple cytoplasmic vesicles engulfing bulk organelles/cytoplasm while ________ is only apoptosis and is activated by _____
- Type II Cell Death, 2. Type I Cell Death, 3. Caspase
Protein buffer systems cannot remove _____ but are able to hold onto it and prevent the pH from changing until it can properly disposed of.
Acids
One of the first mitogens discovered is known as _______________ or PDGF
Platelet Derived Growth Factor.
a low pH and high hydrogen ions in the body indicates ____ while a high pH and low hydrogen ions will be more ____
- Acidity, 2. Basic (Alkaline)
Cells are held together by three different means:
- ECM (Extracellular Matrix), 2. Cell Adhesion, 3. Specialized Cell Junctions
Ligands that are lipid soluble include:
- Steroid Hormones ( Corticosteroids, Sex Hormones, Vitamin D)
Four waste products created by aerobic metabolism include:
- H2O, 2. CO2, 3. Ammonia (NH3), 4. urea
When describing blood flow, the two important pressure at work are ______ pressure and ____ ____ pressure where the first pressure pushes blood through to the capillaries and as that pressure decreases, the second pressure pulls fluid back into circulation.
- Hydrostatic, 2. Colloid Oncotic
A ______ ________ is an independent molecule capable of existing independently and contains a single unpaired electron, making it unstable, in the outer orbit of the cell.
Free Radical
The four phases of the cell cycle include:
- G1 Phase, 2. S Phase (Synthesis), 3. G2 Phase, 4. Mitosis/Cytokinesis
______ are hairlike projections that propel various body secretions out of the body and are commonly seen in the respiratory tract.
Cilia
Cell Surface Proteins usually belong to these three classes:
- Ion Channel Receptors, 2. G-protein receptors, 3. Enzyme linked receptors
_____ is considered to be a non-programmed form of cell death, however it also can be considered regulated via death proteases.
Necrosis
The most common cause of hypoxia is ________
ischemia
____ are the by-products of life (metabolism)
Acids
In anaerobic glycolysis, glucose is converted into_______ ____ and without oxygen will eventually convert into ________
- pyruvic acid, 2. lactic acid
Cells are able to self recognize via _______ ________
Receptor Proteins
Four major groups of Sterol (Steroid) Hormones that are similar in chemical structure and are derived from ______ include these four types (Think ‘one’):
- Progesterone, 2. Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone), 3. Gluccocorticoids (cortisone), 4. Estradiol, 5. Testosterone
______ are cell receptors that can recognize and bind smaller molecules
Ligands
When ATP is synthesized without oxygen in an electron transport chain, an ___________ metabolic pathway opens
anaerobic
_______ is defined as a decrease or shrinkage in cell size from a cellular standpoint.
Atrophy
________ ________ is a condition where carbon dioxide and nitrogen are unable to be dissolved in the blood and form ____ ____
- Decompression Sickness, 2. gas emboli
When thinking of anaerobic metabolism, examples of pathophysiology can include when a person is in respiratory distress and lack oxygen the creation of ____ for energy needs is converted into _____ ___ which can build up and cause an _____ state in the person.
1 pyruvate, 2. Lactic acid. 3. acidic
________ is defined as a reversable replacement of a mature by a less mature cell or change in phenotype.
Metaplasia
Living Cells are divided into ______ and ______
Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
When the body is deficient in lipids, the body compensates by pulling fatty acids from adipose tissue causing _____ to form as a byproduct and can result in a loss of ______ and ______ when eliminated.
- Ketones, 2. water, 3. electrolytes
The four primary types of tissues are:
- Connective, 2. Neural, 3. Epithelial, 4. Muscle
Of the four pathways of Degradation, which of them is crucial in the role of homeostasis?
Autophagy
Lead poisoning can be dangerous especially to children due to it’s high affinity of binding to ______ based enzymes and alters the concentration of ______ ions in cells
- Calcium, 2. Calcium
______ are cytoplasmic projections that assist with functions including absorption and secretion.
Microvilli
____ _____ ____ or ROS is a product of aerobic metabolism that plays many roles in the cell including regulating protein stability, function, location and interaction with other proteins.
Reactive Oxygen Species
Two important regulatory molecules that determine progress of the cell cycle include __________ and _______ where the former requires binding from the latter to become active complexes.
- Cyclin-dependent kinases (cdks), 2. Cyclin,
DAP-IP3 is another second messenger that operates by interacting with __ protein receptors which causes the breakdown of _____ in the cell membrane. The second messenger then stimulates the release of ____ and ____enzymes which carries out the function.
- G, 2. phospholipids, 3. calcium, 4. kinase
____ ____ is a lipid soluble gas that interacts with cells via second messengers which utilize ____ and is then degraded by ___ ____ after use.
- Nitric Oxide (EDRF), 2. cGMP, 3. Phosphodiesterase Enzymes
The two main functions of Exocytosis are:
- Replacing areas of the plasma membrane removed by endocytosis, 2. Release molecules synthesized by the cell into the ECM
While _____ are known for being substances that bind to receptors, they also serve multiple purposes such as _____ , _____ and function as _____ _______
1.Ligands, 2. Hormones, 3. Proteins, 4. Second Messengers
______ is an important chemical that is necessary for aerobic metabolism, pathologically when a person lacks enzymes to synthesize ____ , a component of this important chemical, you will run into a disease called ____ which involves the hematological system.
- Cytochrome, 2. porphyrins, 3. prophyria
Lipid molecules are known to be _______ or a combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic aspects.
amphipathic
Transmembrane receptors utilize a _____ and _____ domain and within the cell to carry out responses via ___ ___ activation through creating ____ _____
- Extracellular, 2. Intracellular, 3. cytoplasmic enzyme, 4. second messengers
A substrate is….
A substance that is converted to a product from a reaction.
In Lysosomes the four pathways of degradation are:
- Endocytosis, 2. Phagocytosis, 3. Macropinocytosis and 4. Autophagy
During aerobic metabolism, substances such as ____ and ___ ____ that can’t be broken down in the cytoplasm are moved to the _______ and initiate a process known as ___ _____ (Citric Acid Cycle).
- pyruvate, 2. acetyl CoA, 3. mitochondria, 4. oxidative phosphorylation
Carbon Dioxide is a by product of the body getting rid of ____ by combining it with ______
- Acids, 2. Bicarbonate
While it is reversible, _______ _______ is often an early manifestion in almost all types of cellular injury.
Cellular Swelling
Certain Electrolytes/Molecules in ICF include _______ , ________ , and _________ which all contain negative charges
- Potassium, 2. Phosphorus, 3. Negatively charged proteins
Mechanisms of cell injury related to decreased energy production include _____ , ______ , _____
- ATP depletion, 2. damage to the mitochondria, 3. protein folding defects
Examples of Lysomal Storage disease include ________ and ______ or an excess storage of ______ and ________
- Mucopolysaccharidoses, 2. Mucolipidoses, 3. Carbohydrates, 4. Lipids
During active transport, when a molecule moves against an area of higher concentration, a special type of transporter known as a _______ utilizes energy to allow diffusion of larger molecules into cells
pumps
_________ or a chain of protein will eventually attract/repel each other and fold into a ________ which determines the function of the proteins in your body.
- Polypeptides, 2. Configuration
A _______ is required to stimulate cells to proliferate (begin mitosis)
Mitogen
Muscles cells are composed of _______
Myocytes
The _____ _____ is a special name for the endoplasmic reticulum that allows for ____ exchange for muscle cell contraction.
- Sarcoplasmic Reticulum,. 2. Calcium
Fraility can vary between males and females, three examples include:
- Men having higher baselines of muscle due to testosterone and growth hormones, 2. Women are more affected by poor activity and caloric intake, 3. Men are more susceptible to sepsis due to immune response to sex steroids
Osmolality differs from Osmolarity where Osmolality is the measure of the ____________ while Osmolarity is the measure of _____________
- The number of milliosmoles per kg of water or the concentration of molecules per weight of water. 2. The concentration of molecules per volume of solution
_______ is an extremely important pigment due to its ability to protect the skin from sunlight as well as prevent skin cancer.
Melanin
Ribosomes make _______
Proteins
All Eukaryotic Cells contain an internal structure for movement within the cell known as the ________
cytoskeleton
During Apoptosis, the protease that is responsible for carrying out the death program is _____
Caspase
Prokaryotes contain _____ organelles as well as lacking a distinct _______
zero, nucleus
The _______ _________ is a special kind of ECM that wraps around muscle, fat and Schwann cells as well as providing a base layer for epithelial cells
Basement Membrane
Hyperplasia works by increasing production of _____ _____ to stimulate cells to increase division
Growth Factors
Aerobic metabolism requires the ____ ____ ___ to utilize ____ or ____ to further breakdown molecules into ____ by transferring electrons from a high energy state to a lower one.
- Cytochrome Oxidase Chain ( electron transport chain), 2. NADH, 3. NADPH, 4. ATP
Iron levels in the blood are determined by the metabolism of the transport protein ______
Transferrin
Cytosol functions as a storage unit for _____, ______, and ___________
Fats, Carbohydrates and secretory vesicles
