neuro important Flashcards
what does the arterial system of the brain originate from ?
internal carotid - anterior portion = 80%
vertebral arteries - posterior portion = 20%
where are berry aneurysms most likely to form?
the junctions/connections between branches in the circle of Willis
roughly what area of the brain does the anterior cerebral artery supply
anterior and middle portion of brain
roughly what area of the brain does the middle cerebral artery supply?
lateral sides of brain
roughly what area of the brain does the posterior cerebral artery supply ?
posterior portion of brain - occipital and some of temporal lobe
what would be the effect of a lesion of the ACA
loss of contralateral motor and sensory functions of lower limbs
what would be the effect of a lesion of the MCA
contralateral motor and sensory functions of upper limbs and face (+ Broca’s aphagia)
what would be the effect of a lesion of the PCA
Vision (leads to opposing side homonymous hemianopia with Macular sparing)
what structures are found in the cavernous sinus
(O TOM CAT) Oculomotor Trochlea Opthalmic Maxilliary Carotid (internal) Abducens (Trochlea)
what is cranial nerve 1 and what is its function
olfactory
smell
what is the pathway of CN I
olfactory epithelium -> olfactory bulb -> olfactory tract -> primary olfactory cortex (+ limbic system)
what type of fibre is CN I (olfactory)
sensory
what is CNII and what is it’s function
Optic
vision and sensory fibre for the pupillary light reflex and accommodation reflex
what type of fibre is CN II (Optic)
sensory
what is CN III and what is its function
Oculomotor
eye movement, pupillary light reflex and accommodation reflex
what type of fibre is CN III (oculomotor)
somatic motor
Oculomotor nucleus -> extraocular muscles except LR6SO4
autonomic motor/parasympathetic
Edinger-Westphal Nucleus -> ciliary ganglion -> ciliary muscles + sphincter pupillae
what is CN IV and what is its function
Trochlear
eye movement - superior oblique
what is the pathway of CN IV
Posterior Midbrain -> exits posteriorly -> loops round anteriorly -> SOF -> SO
what type of fibre is CN IV
motor
what is cranial nerve V and what are its branches
Trigeminal
opthalmic, maxillary, mandibular
describe the pathway of CN V
4 Nuclei along brainstem -> Trigeminal ganglion (Meckel’s cave) -> 3 branches
what kind of fibres make up CN V
Both
motor (muscles of mastication)
somatic sensory (pain, touch, temp, proprioception)
what are the functions of the V1-opthalmic branch of CNV
Somatic sensory: upper face, eyelids, lacrimal gland, and Ethmoid sinus
Autonomic sensory: sensory fibres for corneal reflex
what are the functions of the V2-maxillary branch of CNV
Somatic sensory: maxillary portion of face, upper teeth and lips, and nasopharynx
what are the functions of the V3- mandibular branch of CNV
Somatic sensory: mandibular region of the face, ant anterior 2/3 of the tongue, lower teeth and lips, external ear
Somatic motor: muscles of mastication, Tensor tympani, tensor veli palatini, Mylohyoid, Ant. Belly of DIgastric
what is CN VI and what are its functions
Abducens
eye movement - lateral rectus
describe the pathway of CN VI
Nucleus in pons anterior to facial colliculus -> exits through ponto-medullary junction -> SOF -> LR
what kind of fibres make up CN VI
motor
what is CN VII and what are its functions
facial
Sensory function: taste anterior 2/3 tongue, somatic sensation of external and middle ear
Motor function: Stylohyoid, Stapedius, post. Belly of Digastric, Muscles of facial expression
Autonomic motor function: motor - corneal reflex, lacrimal gland, Nasal gland, sublingual and submandibular salivary glands
what kind of fibres are in CN VII
sensory
motor
parasympathetic
what is CN VIII and what are its functions
vestibulocochlear
sound, balance
describe the pathway of CN VIII
Organ of corti/Vestibular system -> Vestibular ganglion, spiral ganglion-> CN VIII -> IAM -> into ponto-medullary junction lateral to 6 and 7
what is cranial nerve IX and what are its functions
glossopharyngeal
Sensory: Pharynx, soft palate, external ear, posterior 1/3 of tongue, carotid sinus and body
Motor: stylopharyngeus
Parasympathetic: parotid gland
what is the origin of CN IX
3 nuclei in medulla
what fibres does CN IX carry
both motor and sensory + parasympathetic
what is CN X and what are its functions
vagus
Sensory: aortic arch, thoracic viscera, larynx, Abdominal Viscera, External ear and epiglottis (taste)
Motor: muscles of soft palate (swallowing), pharyngeal muscles (swallowing), and Laryngeal muscles (speech)
Parasympathetic: Thoracic viscera, GI tract
what is the origin of CN X
medulla
what fibres does CN X carry
both motor and sensory + parasympathetic
what is CN XI and what are its functions
accessory nerve
Cranial: accessory to CN X in innervating the Pharyngeal muscles
Spinal: sternocleidomastoid, trapezius
what is the origin of CN XI
Cranial component: medulla; Spinal component: C1-C5
what type of fibres does CN XI carry
motor
describe the pathway of CN XI
Spinal component the brain via the Foramen Magnum -> meets up with the cranial component -> exits via the Jugular Foramen
what is CN XII and what are its functions
hypoglossal
muscles of tongue
what kind of fibres does CN XII carry
motor
what is the origin of CN XII
hypoglossal nucleus – medulla
what does the spinal trigeminal nucleus do
Receives sensory innervation from the face (CN V, VII, IX and X)
what is the nucleus ambiguus
Motor nucleus for muscles of the pharynx and Larynx (CN IX, X and XI)
what is the solitary tract nucleus
Taste nucleus (CN VII, IX and X)
describe the anatomy of the outer eye
Sclera (white part of eye)
Cornea (first point of refraction)
describe the anatomy of the middle eye
Iris: contains the sphincter pupillae, dilator pupillae
Choroid
Ciliary body: ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments
lens
describe the anatomy of the inner eye
Retina: detect light
Outer pigmented layer: contains melnin
Inner neural layer – photoreceptors, light transduction, vit A storage
action of lateral rectus
abduction
action of medial rectus
adduction
action of superior rectus
elevation, adduction and intorsion
action of inferior rectus
Depression, Abduction and extorsion
action of superior oblique
Intorsion, abduction, depression
action of inferior oblique
Extorsion, abduction, Elevation
what are the 2 synergistic pairs of eye muscles
SR + IO
IR + SO
what is the effect of a CN III palsy
Depression and abduction of eye (down and out)
Eye lid drooped down
what is the effect of a CN VI palsy
cant laterally rotate (abduct) eye
what is the effect of a CN IV palsy
eye extorted - appears slightly elevated
what parts of the ear are fluid or air filled
External ear (air-filled) Middle ear (air-filled) Inner ear (fluid-filled)
what are the aspects of the external ear
auricle, external acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane
what is the function of the auricle
directs sound into the external acoustic meatus
what is the function of the external acoustic meatus
Transmits sound into the tympanic membrane
Contains cerumen: prevents pathogens and insects from reaching the tympanic membrane
what is the function of the tympanic membrane
Vibrates in response to sound -> transmits vibrations to ossicles
Separates external ear from middle ear
Attaches onto the Malleus bone
what are the components of the middle ear
ossicles, muscles (stapedius, tensor tympani), eustachian tube, oval window
describe the direction of vibrations through the ossicles
Malleus -> Incus -> Stapes -> Oval window -> inner ear
what does the stapedius do
dampens the stapes to prevent excess vibration in response to loud sound
what does tensor tympani do
tenses the tympanic membrane to prevent excessive vibrations -> dampens loud sounds
what does the eustachian tube do
Tube: connects middle ear to nasopharynx and equalises pressure either side of the tympanic membrane -> Empties middle ear secretions into nasopharynx
what does the oval window do
transfers mechanical vibrations from the middle ear into fluid filled vibrations in the inner ear
what are the components of the inner ear
semi-circular canals, vestibule, cochlea
function of semi-circular canals
Detects changes in dynamic equilibrium
role of vestibule
Utricle and saccule
Detects changes in static equilibrium
components of cochlea
Scala vestibuli
Scala media/Cochlear duct- Organ of Corti
Scala tympani
what is the function of the basal ganglia
Execution of smooth movements – aka. Fine tunes movement plan
Stimulates desirable movement
Inhibits undesirable movement
Modulates movement
what makes up the striatum
caudate nucleus + putamen
what makes up the lentiform nucleus
globus pallidus + putamen
what are the 2 parts of the substantia nigra
Pars Reticularis (SNr) Pars Compacta (SNc)
what is the direct pathway of the basal ganglia
Stimulates desirable movement
what is the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia
Inhibits undesirable movement
what is the nigrostriatal pathway of the basal ganglia
Modulates both direct and indirect pathways => movement amplification
what causes Parkinson’s disease
hypokinetic
inactive substantia nigra compacta
overactivity of indirect pathway, underactivity of direct pathway
what causes huntingtons
hyperkinetic
destruction of cells of the indirect pathway, indirect pathway inhibition, decreased movement inhibition
what are the ascending tracts
DCML
Spinothalamic
spinocerebellar
what does the DCML convey
fine touch, proprioception, vibration
what does the spinothalamic tract convey
crude touch, pain, temperature
what does the spinocerebellar tract convey
unconscious proprioception
what are the descending tracts
corticospinal
corticobulbar
extra pyramidal tracts
what is the corticospinal tract involved in
conscious muscle movement
what is the corticobulbar tract involved in
voluntary movement of face and neck muscles
what are the extra pyramidal tracts involved with
coordination, posture and muscle tone
what do ascending tracts carry
sensory information towards the brain (4 orders of neuron)
what do descending tracts carry
motor information towards the muscles (2 orders of neuron)
describe the pathway of the DCML
- Travels via the ipsilateral side to the nucleus
1. 1st - Dorsal root ganglion, enters posterior column
and ascends
2. SYNAPSE to 2nd.
3. Decussate at medulla
4. SYNAPSE to 3rd in Thalamus
5. Primary somatosensory cortex to 4th.
what does the anterior vs lateral spinothalamic tract convey
Anterior: crude touch and pressure.
Lateral: pain and temperature
describe the pathway of the spinothalamic tract
- 1st - Dorsal root ganglion, enter spinal cord and ascend together
ipsilaterally for 1-2 segments. - SYNAPSE. 2nd order decussate across anterior white commissure
- Split into anterior and lateral.
- Ascend on contralateral spinal cord.
- DOES NOT decussate at medulla. - SYNAPSE in Thalamus to 3rd order.
- Fibres travel to primary somatosensory cortex. - Synapse to 4th order which carry messages to various points in the
cortex.
describe the pathway of the spinocerebellar tract
- First order: dorsal root ganglion into the spinal cord.
- Synapse to a second order neuron.
- Splits and either crosses the spinal cord and goes up the
ventral tract CONTRALATERALLY. Or doesn’t cross and
ascends up the dorsal tract ipsilaterally. - Dorsal into inferior cerebellar peduncle.
- Ventral into superior. Decussates within the cerebellum.
- BOTH END UP IPSILATERAL.
describe the route of the corticospinal tracts
anterior and lateral tracts. 10% stay ipsilateral, 90% decussate at medulla. Supplies musculature of the body
describe the route of the corticobulbar tracts
neurones terminate on the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves
what are the 4 extra pyramidal tracts
vestibulospinal, reticulospinal, tectospinal and rubrospinal
describe the route of the extra pyramidal tracts
the vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts do not decussate, providing ipsilateral innervation.
The rubrospinal and tectospinal tracts do decussate and therefore provide contralateral innervation
what are the symptoms of Brown Sequard syndrome
loss of pain, temp and light touch on contralateral side (spinothalamic)
loss of vibration, motor, deep touch and position of ipsilateral side (Corticospinal/ DCML)
what makes up a motor unit
an alpha motor neuron + extrafusal skeletal muscle fibres it innervates
what do alpha motor neurones control
muscle contraction involved in voluntary movement
what do gamma motor neurones control
muscle contraction in response to external forces acting on the muscle
the smaller the motor unit ….
the finer the control
what are intrafusal muscle fibres
regulatory unit surrounded by extrafusal fibres
what is the role of intrafusal muscle fibres
- Sense stretch: monitors muscle length and rate of change. - Help to prevent overstretching of muscles. - Type 1a and type 2 sensory fibres detect these changes. - Innervated by gamma motor neurons that help keep the intrafusal unit taut so they can keep detecting change
describe the stretch (myotatic) reflex
Stretch reflex: when sensory neurons in an intrafusal unit
detect over stretching.
type 1a - synapse and excite alpha motor neurones from same muscle - contraction
type 2 - synapse + inhibit alpha motor neurones of antagonistic muscle - relaxation
what do golgi tendons detect
tension
describe the role of the golgi tendons
- Have type 1B sensory fibres that are stimulated by the compression of muscle contraction. - If there is too much muscle tension the golgi tendon organ will inhibit the muscle from creating any force (via a reflex arc), thus protecting you from injuring itself. As well as contracting the antagonistic muscle.
what is the inverse stretch reflex
protects from the overload of muscle
if stimulated enough they will cause inhibition/relaxation of the contracting muscle and stimulation of the antagonistic muscle
what is the axon resting potential
-70mV
what do excitatory neurotransmitters do
Results in depolarisation of next neuron by bringing membrane potential closer
to threshold potential
- Generate excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSPs)
- Eg acetylcholine
- Increase the likelihood of a response
what to inhibitory neurotransmitters do
hyperpolarisation
membrane potential decreased to further from threshold, harder for action potential to begin, generate inhibitory post-synaptic potentials (IPSPs)
e.g. GABA
what does white matter contain
myelinated axons
what does grey matter contain
cell bodies and no myelin sheaths
what cells myelinate axons in the brain
oligodendrocytes
what are commissures
tracts connecting one hemisphere to the other, cross the midline
what are lemnisci
narrow strips of fibres
what is a funiculi
rope or cord
what is a capsule
sheet of white matter fibres that border a nucleus of grey matter
what are nuclei
collection of nerve cell bodies within the CNS e.g. arcuate nucleus
what are ganglia
collection of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS e.g. the dorsal root ganglia in the PNS
and some inside CNS that have capsule e.g. basal ganglia
what are afferents
axons taking information towards the CNS e.g. sensory fibres
what are efferents
axons taking information to another site from the CNS e.g. motor fibres
what does reticular mean
where grey and white matter mix e.g. brain stem
what are sulci
grooves
what are gyri
ridges
functions of the frontal lobe
voluntary movement on opposite side of body
dominant hemisphere controls speech (broca’s area) and writing
intellectual functioning, thought processes, reasoning and memory
functions of the parietal lobe
receives and interprets sensations (pain, touch, pressure, size) and proprioception
functions of temporal lobe
understanding spoken word (Wernike’s area), sounds, memory and emotion
functions of the occipital lobe
understanding visual images and meaning of written word
what are the grey matter structures
thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia
lentiform nucleus =
globus + putamen
role of the thalamus
relay centre direction inputs to cortical areas
role of hypothalamus
links endocrine system to brain & involved in homeostasis
role of cerebellum
co-ordinates movement and balance
how is the cerebellum attached to the brain stem
3 peduncles:
superior - midbrain
middle - pons
inferior - medulla
how is the cerebellum separated from the dorsal brainstem?
4th ventricle - forms part of its roof
what is the cerebellum made up of
folded cortex, white matter and deep inner nuclei
how do cerebellar injuries present
slow, uncoordinated movements, intention tremor, weak muscles, nystagmus
anatomy of the midbrain
tectum - superior and inferior colliculi
cerebral peduncle - tegmentum & crus cerebri
surrounds the cerebral aqueduct
types of nerve cell
pyramidal, stellate, golgi, purkinje
types of neuroglia
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia
Neurulation
ectoderm - neural plate (3w) - differential mitosis - neural groove - detaches to form neural tube- neural crest cells laterally
what do neural crest cells develop into
schwaan cells, pigment cells, meninges, bony skull, adrenal medulla, dorsal root ganglia, CN V, VII, IX, X, dermis
which portion of the neural tube grows fastest
rostral - develops into spinal cord
what are the 3 primary brain vesicles in week 5
prosencephalon (forebrain)
mesencephalon (midbrain)
rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
what are the secondary brain vesicles present at week 7
- prosencephalon -> telencephalon + diencephalon
- mesencephalon
- rhombencephalon -> metencephalon + myelencephalon
what does the telencephalon give rise too in the mature brain
cerebral hemisphere & lateral ventricles
what does the diencephalon give rise too in the mature brain
thalamus, hypothalamus & 3rd ventricle
what does the mesencephalon give rise too in the mature brain
midbrain (colliculi) & aqueduct
what does the metencephalon give rise too in the mature brain
cerebellum, pons & upper part of 3rd ventricle
what does the myelencephalon give rise too in the mature brain
medulla, lower part of 4th ventricle
when does the neural tube usually close
week 4
what happens is the spinal cord fails to close
spinal cord - spina bifida
cephalic region - anencephalus
what are some developmental milestones
w3 - eye w10 - expansion, commissures 3m - basic structures 5m -myelination 7m - lobes 9m - gyri + sulci
what does the corpus callosum do
fibre bundle which connects left and right hemisphere
what percentage of neurons are in the cerebellum
70%
functions of the hippocampus
limbic system
construction of mental images
short term memory
spatial memory and navigation
what is anterograde tract tracing
transport from neural cell bodies to axon terminals
what is retrograde tract tracing
transport from axonal terminals to neuronal cell bodies
how do you detect brain activity
increased neural activity - increased neurotransmitters, need more O2 so blood - can be seen on imaging e.g. EEG
role of glial cells
surround the soma, axon and dendrites of neurones and provide them with physical and metabolic support e.g. oligodendrocytes, schwaan, astrocytes
role of astrocytes
help to regulate the composition of the ECF in the CNS by removing K+ and neurotransmitters (glutamate)
help form tight junctions - BBB
role of microglia
specialised macrophage-like cells that perform immune functions in the CNS
role of ependymal cells
line fluid filled cavities within the brain and spinal cord - regulate the production and flow of CSF
what are the features of the blood brain barrier
endothelial tight junctions astrocyte end feet pericytes continuous basement membrane specific transporters
what are circumventrular organs
lack the blood-brain barrier e.g. posterior pituitary
how do ventricles and subarachnoid space connect
cisterns
where does the CSF circulate
subarachnoid space
how is CSF produced
by ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles
what is hydrocephalus
abnormal accumulation of CSF in ventricular system
what causes multiple sclerosis
the degeneration of myelin and development of scar tissue which in turn disrupts and eventually blocks neurotransmission along myelinated axons
what are the 5 processes of synaptic transmission
manufacture storage release interact with post-synaptic receptors inactivation
what is temporal summation
input signals arrive from the same presynaptic cell at different times - summate - greater flow of ions into cell
what is spatial summation
where 2 inputs occur at different locations in the post synaptic neurone
name some examples of fast neurotransmitters
ACh
glutamate
GABA
name some examples of neuromodulators - longer, slower response
Dopamine
noradrenaline
serotonin
how do local anaesthetics work
interrupt axonal neurotransmission by blocking sodium channels
what are cholinergic neurons
neurones that release ACh
role of acetylcholinesterase
located on post and presynaptic membrane and rapidly destroys ACh, releasing choline & acetate
choline is transported back into presynaptic axon terminal for resynthesis of ACh
what are the 2 general types of ACh receptors
nicotine -neuromuscular junction
muscarinic - brain and junctions of PNS
role of noradrenaline
transmitter in the peripheral heart and CNS
affected by antidepressant drugs
what is dopamine
important transmitter in basal ganglia
what is the role of serotonin
has an excitatory effect on pathways that mediate sensations
what is glutamate
main excitatory neurotransmitter
what is GABA
main inhibitory neurotransmitter
what is L-DOPA
precursor for dopamine - able to cross BBB - parkinson’s medication
what is the human hearing range
20-20000 Hz
what range is the ear most sensitive at
1000-4000 Hz
what is sensation of the middle ear provided by
CN IX - glossopharyngeal
what type of joints are found between the ossicles
synovial
what substance is the cochlea duct filled with
endolymph (high K+, low Na+)
how many rows of inner hair cells are there
1
how many rows of outer hair cells are there
4-5
describe the path of the cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve (CNVIII)
cochlear nuclei -> superior olivary nucleus -> inferior colliculus -> medial geniculate body -> primary auditory cortex in Wernicke’s area
where does the facial nerve CNVII exit the cranial cavity?
internal acoustic meatus behind the cochlea
what does the vestibule apparatus consist of
3 semi-circular canals, the utricle and saccule
what is the function of the semi circular canals
detect angular acceleration during the rotation of the head along 3 axis
what is the function of the utricle and saccule
provide information about linear acceleration of the head, and about the changes in head position in relation to gravity
what do rods detect
light and dark
what do cones detect
colour
what are the 3 layers of the tear film
anterior lipid
middle aqueous
posterior mucous
what are the layers through which a photon must travel through the eye
tear film cornea aqueous humour lens vitreous humour ganglion cell amacrine cell bipolar cell horizontal cell cone & rods pigmented epithelium
describe the blood supply of the eye
internal
9opthalmic, optic nerve) and external
(medial lid and orbit) carotid
describe the somatic nervous system
innervate skeletal muscle single neurone between CNS and skeletal muscle cells only excitatory conscious only ACh
describe the autonomic nervous system
innervate smooth & cardiac muscle, glands ect.
2 neurone chain
excitatory or inhibitory
involuntary
ACh before ganglion and ACh or noradrenaline after
describe the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
fight or flight
T1-L2, sympathetic trunks
pre = ACH + nicotinic receptors
describe the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
pre = ACh + nicotinic receptors
effector cell = ACh + muscarinic receptors
what are upper motor neurons
the descending pathways and neurones of the motor cortex
what are the lower motor neurones
PNS, alpha motor neurones
what is acute pain
less than 12 weeks
what is chronic pain
more than 12 weeks
what is nociceptive pain
pain that arises from actual or threatened damage to non-neuronal tissue and is due to the activation of nociceptors
what is neuropathic pain
pain initiated or caused by a primary lesion/ dysfunction of the nervous system
what are first order neurones/ primary afferent
enters through spinal or trigeminal nerve ipsilaterally synapses with 2nd order neuron in CNS
what are second order neurons
cell body in spinal cord/ brainstem
decussates to other side of CNS and ascends to terminate at the thalamus
what is a third order neuron
cell body in thalamus - projects to somatosensory cortex
what are the afferent fibres of nociceptors
alpha delta fibres - thinly myelinates, touch, pressure, temp, fast pain
C fibre: unmyelinated, slow pain, temp, touch, pressure, itch - slowest conduction speed
what is the insula
lies within the brain via the sylvian fissure
where degree of pain is judged - subjective
what is the cingulate gyrus
medial aspect of hemispheres
linked with limbic system
emotion, learning and memory
what is the periaqueductal grey
in midbrain
receives input from somatosensory cortex - reduced pain sensation in extreme stress
what is substance P
peptide neurotransmitter involved in pain transmission , vasodilator , long lasting pain
why do substantia nigra appear black?
neuramelanin that is produced as a by-product of dopamine production
what do people with huntingtons lack
GABA
what are the functions of the limbic system?
learning & regulation and translation of out emotional state into appropriate behaviour
connected via papez circuit
what does the limbic system consist of
cingulate gyrus
hippocampus
parahippocampal gyrus
uncus, amygdala
what is responsible for explicit memory
episodic - hippocampus & midbrain
semantic - frontal temporal lobe
what is responsible for implicit memory
skills- cerebellum + basal ganglia
reflexes - cerebellum
emotional - amygdala
what is the amygdala responsible for
emotional memory and output
responsible for fear
what are the 2 inputs of the cerebellum
mossy fibres (middle peduncle) climbing fibres (inferior peduncle)
what is the output of the cerebellum
purkinje cell axons
what are the names and numbers of the vertebral column
7 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
where are the dural venous sinuses located
between the periosteal and meningeal layers of dura mater
what structure do the dural venous sinuses drain into
internal jugular vein
where are the straight, superior and inferior sagittal sinuses found and where do they converge
found along the flax cerebri
converge at the confluence of sinuses
what does the transverse sinus drain into
transverse -> sigmoidal -> internal jugular vein
what does the cavernous sinus drain into
cavernous -> superior + inferior petrosal -> internal jugular vein
where are the cerebral veins found and what do they drain into
subarachnoid space
drain into dural venous sinuses
what supplies sensation to the middle ear?
glossopharyngeal nerve
describe the pathway of sound
auricle -> external auditory canal -> tympanic membrane -> ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) -> oval window -> scala vestibuli -> majority to cochlea duct, rest to scala tympani where pressure is relieved by the round window
where does the basilar membrane lie
in the cochlea duct on the scala tympani surface
how does the frequency differ at the base and the apex of the basilar membrane
base - thin, high freq
apex - wide, low freq
what is the role of the inner hair cells in the cochlea
stereocillia extend into endolymph - convert movements into receptor potentials
what is the role of the outer hair cells in the cochlea
stereocillia in tectorial membrane - sharpen frequency tuning
when bent- TIP links open, K+ channels open and influx in -> causes Ca2+ channels to open and influx in -> release of glutamate -> AP
describe the path of the cochlea branch of vestibulocochlear nerve
cochlear nuclei -> superior olivary nucleus -> inferior colliculus -> medial geniculate body (via inferior brachium) -> primary auditory cortex
what substance fills the vestibular system
endolymph
describe how the semi-circular canals work
stereocilia are located at the capula near the ampulla
head rotation bends stereocilia which affects glutamate release
describe how the utricle and saccule work
detect changes in gravity
saccule hair cells are at right angles to utricle hair cells
stereocilia covered by gelatinous substance with otoliths embedded
describe the components of the direct pathway
cerebral cortex -> striatum -x internal Globus pallidus + SNr -x thalamus -> excitatory inputs to cerebral cortex
describe the components of the indirect pathway
cerebral cortex -> striatum -x External Globus pallidus -x subthalamic nucleus -> SNr + internal globus pallidus -x thalamus -x inhibitory inputs to cerebral cortex