Module 6: Personality

Question 1

personality

Answer 1

the traits or characteristics of a person that are consistent across time and situations
- distinguishes individuals from each other

Question 2

personality as traits

Answer 2

refers to a consistent pattern of behavior, feelings, and thoughts that a person would usually display in relevant circumstances

Question 3

personality as identity

Answer 3

our perceived roles in life, aggregate role and life experiences, narratives, values, and motives

Question 4

four approaches of studying personality and culture
- Cheung (2011)

Answer 4

• psychological anthropology
• etic/cross-cultural approach
• emic/culturally indigenous perspective
• combined emic-etic approach

Question 5

psychological anthropology

Answer 5

introduces the concept of national character
- each culture has a modal personality type that is shared by most people within that culture
- personality is seen as culturally specific and influenced by the unique circumstances of each culture
- emphasis is more on learning processes and cultural practices than on biological factors
- personality develops early in childhood based on the cultural characteristics of the society

Question 6

etics/cross-cultural approach

Answer 6

views personality as an etic or universal phenomenon, independent of culture
- personality is seen as something that occurs similarly in every culture and is measurable, allowing for comparisons across cultures
- looks for both universal personality traits and culture-specific variations
- many instruments adopted from the English language creating risk for ethnocentrism
- comparing and looking for similarities between cultures, many important details are skipped, possibly creating a blind spot

Question 7

emic/culturally indigenous perspective

Answer 7

states that personality and culture are not separate, but influence and shape each other
- personality traits are specific to a particular culture and arise within that cultural context
- rejects universal theories of personality
- methods are often not rigorous enough
- must be considered whether the new instrument actually adds something to already existing instruments (incremental validity)

Question 8

combined emic-etic approach

Answer 8

recognizes both universal (etic) and culture-specific (emic) aspects of personality
- suggests that universal and indigenous perspectives don’t have to be mutually exclusive, but rather can be complementary
- makes it possible to study both the common and unique elements of personality across cultures

Question 9

five-factor model (the big five)

Answer 9

• openness to experience
• conscientiousness
• extraversion
• agreeableness
• neuroticism

Question 10

factor analysis

Answer 10

identifies a small number of underlying variables from a large number of observed variables

Question 11

five-factor theory

Answer 11

we are born with biological, basic tendencies from which characteristic adaptations arise, such as attitudes, skills, relationships, or assumed roles
- influenced by culture

Question 12

evolutionary theory

Answer 12

personality structure is seen as a universal understanding of human interest through natural selection and adaptation to the environment

Question 13

Rotter (1954, 1966)

Answer 13

conducted cross-cultural research and thus encountered the locus of control

Question 14

locus of control

Answer 14

describes how much control a person thinks they have over their behavior and relationships in the environment

Question 15

internal locus of control

Answer 15

would mean that you attribute everything as a consequence of your own behavior

Question 16

external locus of control

Answer 16

attributes everything independently of yourself and primarily places the blame on something happening outside of you

Question 17

study of the Ashanti personality

Answer 17

an example of the emic approach in personality research

Question 18

Jahoda (1954)

Answer 18

studied children who were given the name of the day they were born, which would refer to the soul of that day
- Monday is calm/peaceful and Wednesday is aggressive and moody
- causes an over-representation in crime (more crime due to ‘Wednesdays’)
- reflection of stereotypes/internalized expectations (self-fulfilling prophecy)

Question 19

Ubuntu philosophy

Answer 19

a person is a person only through the relationships they have with others

Question 20

Japanese amae relationship style
- Doi (1973)

Answer 20

refers to a form of passive dependence that comes from the relationship between a mother and child
- in adult relationships, amae is manifested by a silent expectation of care and support from others, without explicit request

Question 21

Chinese personality assessment inventory (CPAI)

Answer 21

combines both an emic and etic approach
- has an emic approach in that it was developed specifically for Chinese culture
- has an etic approach because the personality traits discovered in Chinese culture were then tested in other cultures

Question 22

Cheung et al. (1996)

Answer 22

examined how Chinese people describe themselves using Chinese books, proverbs, and interviews, and derived 4 factors:
- social potency
- dependence
- leniency
- interpersonal connectedness

Question 23

Lin and Church (2004)

Answer 23

found that the factor of interpersonal connectedness is also found in Chinese and European Americans, indicating that this dimension is not exclusively Chinese

Question 24

South African personality inventory

Answer 24

also developed using a combined emic-etic approach
- goal of the SAPI project was to develop an indigenous theoretical model of personality
- wanted to develop a personality test that is not biased toward particular languages or ethnic groups in South Africa
- this personality test would therefore comply with labor laws in South Africa

Question 25

South African law restrictions

Answer 25

psychological testing is allowed only when the test used is:
- scientifically proven to be valid and reliable
- can be applied to almost anyone
- is not biased for or against members of any group

Question 26

phases of SAPI development

Answer 26

• culturally specific phase
• instrument development phase
• combined emic-etic phase

Question 27

culturally specific phase of SAPI development

Answer 27

used a psycholexical approach, which assumes that salient individual differences in psychological functioning are encoded in language
- dictionaries were not available in all 11 languages (different from the psycholexical approach used for the big five
- interviews were conducted where participants described themselves and others in certain contexts
- 9 distinct clusters found

Question 28

9 distinct clusters of the culturally specific phase

Answer 28

• conscientiousness
• emotional stability
• extraversion
• facilitation/relief (guiding others)
• integrity (honesty, reliability, loyalty)
• intellect (creativity/talent)
• openness
• relationship harmony
• gentleness (agreeableness/kindness)

Question 29

instrument development phase

Answer 29

items were developed to test the clusters
- had to be consistent in meaning across cultures/languages in South Africa
- consistency of behavior (traitedness), was also considered

Question 30

combined emic-etic phase

Answer 30

purpose of this phase was to establish validity in different contexts
- Nel et al (2011)

Question 31

Nel et al (2011)

Answer 31

found that most clusters, such as conscientiousness and emotional stability, occurred in both countries, suggesting that these traits are universal
- however, the cluster facilitation/relief which was important for relationships in South Africa, did not occur in the Netherlands
- indicates that some personality dimensions are more culture-specific, depending on cultural values such as collectivism or individualism

Question 32

Zeinoun (2017)

Answer 32

study 1: qualitative study of personality descriptions among Arab countries
- 9 personality dimensions emerged
study 2: quantitative study warped to an indigenous personality inventory
- 7 personality dimensions emerged, 5 of which corresponded to the five-factor model

Question 33

Zeinoun (2018)

Answer 33

repeated such a study and came up with 6 dimensions where openness did not return
- also been replicated by other studies (De Raad et al. 2010), so methodology is borderline irrelevant

Question 34

Arab countries

Answer 34

have 3 different languages, which relate to something called Diglossia
- indicates that by one particular community with the same language, different dialects are spoken

Question 35

Arabic

Answer 35

recognizes classical Arabic (CA), used by the Quaran, modern standard Arabic (MSA), mainly spoken and written
- also vernacular, which is a type of street language

Question 36

GloCal

Answer 36

a personality instrument designed to combine global and local elements for Arab countries

Question 37

steps of GloCal

Answer 37

1. Etic: use dictionary for characteristics in MSA
2. Etic: reduce and validate these traits based on familiarity
3. Etic: collect personality traits from individuals, through another instrument
4. Emic: additional measurements to again reduce and validate. Consider removing redundant words such as words with the same meaning in another dialect
5. Emic: qualitative data in the form of spoken personality traits
6. Emic: comparing this data with other cultures and methods

Question 38

biologically anchored personality traits

Answer 38

traits are universal and function the same in every culture