Module 2: Methods and Bias

Question 1

cross-cultural validation studies

Answer 1

the valididty (= accuracy) and reliablility (= consistency) of a scale, test, or measure originally developed in one culture examined across different cultures
- aim is to check whether the measure is equivalent across cultures

Question 2

indigenous cultural studies

Answer 2

these allow for in-depth analyses into a single culture
- the insights from these studies can then be compared across cultures

Question 3

cross-cultural comparison studies

Answer 3

psychological constructs are compared between participants from 2 or more cultures

Question 4

exploratory vs hypothesis testing

Answer 4

exploratory studies examine whether cultural differences or similarities exist
- hypothesis testing studies examine why cultural differences exist

Question 5

presence vs absence of contextual factors

Answer 5

contextual factors are variables that can explain cross-cultural differences

Question 6

structure vs level oriented

Answer 6

structure-oriented studies compare constructs, measures, or relationships with other constructs across cultures
- level-oriented studies compare differences between average scores across cultures

Question 7

individual vs ecological (cultural) measurement level

Answer 7

in individual-level studies, the unit of analysis is data from individuals
- in ecological-level studies, the unit of analysis is date from countries or cultures

Question 8

cannot assume isomorphism

Answer 8

we cannot assume that a relationship or association between variables is the same at every level

Question 9

Simpsons Paradox

Answer 9

where there is a relationship in one life that does not exist in another

Question 10

avoid ecological fallacy

Answer 10

occurs when country-level data are used to make statements about individuals of that country

Question 11

avoid dichotomies

Answer 11

a division or contrast between 2 things that are, or are being presented as being opposed or entirely different
- individualist OR collectivist
- independent OR interdependent

Question 12

avoid cultural essentialism

Answer 12

culture is believed to be a central aspect of someone’s personality that defines who they are

Question 13

linkage studies

Answer 13

studies that attempt to discover a linkage between psychological and cultural variables
- unpacking studies
- experiments

Question 14

unpacking studies

Answer 14

aim to explore and identify the specific cultural factors or mechanisms (like values, norms, or practices) that explain cultural differences in behavior, rather than simply noting that differences exist
- also called context variables (operationalize cultural constructs)

Question 15

Poorting (2016, 2022)

Answer 15

compared unpacking studies to peeling an onion
- we cannot explain behavior by culture alone, but must ‘peel’ it layer by layer
- sees culture as a place holder for that which we do not know yet

Question 16

experiments

Answer 16

research in which one variable is manipulated to observe its effect on the other variable
- 2 types: priming and behavioral

Question 17

priming experiments

Answer 17

manipulating the participant’s train of thought to observe behavioral change

Question 18

behavioral experiments

Answer 18

manipulating the environment to observe behavioral change

Question 19

bias

Answer 19

a systematic error that endangers the comparability of data across cultures and groups

Question 20

construct bias

Answer 20

the measured construct is not identical across cultures/groups

Question 21

model bias

Answer 21

does the theoretical framework of whatever it is we are measuring translate in the same way across cultures?

Question 22

sample bias

Answer 22

cross-cultural variation in sample characteristics, such as differences in gender, education, SES, or urbanization

Question 23

instrument bias

Answer 23

the measurement instrument might be biased

Question 24

stimulus familiarity

Answer 24

the extent to which participants are familiar with the stimuli, can have an enormous impact

Question 25

response styles

Answer 25

systematic tendency to use certain categories of response

Question 26

administration bias

Answer 26

administration conditions, ambiguous instructions, the interaction between administrator and respondent, or communication problems

Question 27

interpretational bias

Answer 27

interpreting data based on one’s own culture, without considering that of another
- creates misinterpretation

Question 28

Poortinga’s 4 ways to deal with interpretation non-equivalence

Answer 28

• ignoring
• stopping the comparison
• interpreting the non-equivalence
• reducing the non-equivalence

Question 29

linguistic/item bias

Answer 29

cross-cultural research is done in many countries, speaking many languages, therefore it is a concern whether or not terms in a language have the same meaning when translated into other languages

Question 30

back translation

Answer 30

helps reduce linguistic bias by translating a piece of text from language 1 to language 2, then translating it back to language 1

Question 31

equivalence

Answer 31

the level of comparability across cultures and groups
- related to the measurement level at which scores obtained in different cultures can be compared
- e.g. kilometers vs miles can be converted into one another

Question 32

construct equivalence

Answer 32

no construct bias is present
- we are measuring the same thing across cultures

Question 33

measurement unit equivalence

Answer 33

with conversion, we can obtain equivalent scores

Question 34

full score equivalence

Answer 34

no bias present
- this is the goal, but not always obtainable

Question 35

minimization of bias

Answer 35

• design
• implementation
• analysis

Question 36

design

Answer 36

• “how can i make my study culturally appropriate?”
• choice of instruments is important
• instruments can be adopted, adapted to the context, or assembled

Question 37

implementation

Answer 37

“how can i conduct my study in a culturally appropriate way?”
- pilot studies, standard protocols, and clear instructions are important

Question 38

analysis

Answer 38

“do my items behave differently?”
- exploratory/confirmatory factor analysis and differential item functioning analysis can be used

Question 39

qualitative research

Answer 39

done in a natural setting or in the field
- help to gather information about a culture we are dealing with for the first time, build theoretical models, and generate hypotheses
- depends on interpretation, and it is difficult to formalize procedures
- a lot of room for bias

Question 40

quantitative research

Answer 40

independent and dependent variables are used
- useful for hypothesis testing
- often difficult to control for the variables
- post hoc cultural interpretations are very susceptible to bias