Module 12: Culture and Organizations Flashcards
Hofstede
studies the work-related values of IBM employees beginning in the 1970s. from this he extracted four dimension on which he could classify cultural values at the country level (Hofstede’s dimensions)
power distance (Hofstede’s dimensions)
the extend to which different cultures encourage or perpetuate power and status differences between people
- high power distance organizations are highly hierarchal and develop rules, mechanisms and rituals to reinforce status and power relations
- organizations with lower power distance are more egalitarian and minimize rules and customs
individualism/collectivism (Hofstede’s dimensions)
the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups
- in individualistic cultures, individuals are expected to care only for themselves and their immediate family. there is emphasis on personal goals, independence and self-reliance
- in collectivist cultures, individuals are integrated into strong, cohesive groups (such as extended families) that protect them in exchange for loyalty. there is a strong emphasis on group harmony, cooperation and collective well-being. people tend to prioritize group goals and conformity over personal achievement
masculinity/femininity (Hofstede’s dimensions)
the extend to which cultures promote or perpetuate gender differences in work-related values
- in masculine cultures, the emphasis is on competition, achievement, success and material rewards. there is often a clear distinction between gender roles, with men expected to be assertive and women expected to be caring
- in feminine cultures the emphasis is more on cooperation, caring for others and quality of life. gender roles are more fluid and both men and women are expected to share caring responsibilities
uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede’s dimensions)
the extend to which different cultures develop ways of dealing with the fear and stress of uncertainties
- cultures with high uncertainty avoidance prefer structures environments, clear rules and predictable outcomes. they have a low tolerance for ambiguity, and high-averse behavior is common. organizations often develop strict rules, policies and rituals to manage uncertainty
- cultures with low uncertainty avoidance are more relaxed about change and unpredictability. people are more comfortable with ambiguity, innovation and risk-taking. organizations have fewer formal rules and are more open to flexibility
long-term orientation vs short term orientation (additional dimension added later on)
the degree to which a culture values long-term, forward looking planning vs short-term, immediate results
- cultures with long-term orientation prioritize perseverance and adaptation to changing circumstances. they values future rewards, long-term commitments and nurturing relationships more than quick results
- cultures with short-term orientation focus on traditions, immediate results and maintaining social obligations. they tend to place more emphasis on present and the past than on the future long-term goals
indulgence vs restraint (additional dimension added later on)
the degree to which societies allow relatively free gratification of basic human urges related to enjoying life and having fun
- in indulgent cultures, people are free to express their desires, enjoy life and engage in leisure activities. there is a greater emphasis on individual happiness and well-being, with fewer restrictions on behavior
- restrained cultures suppress the satisfaction of desires and regulate behavior through struct social norms. people feel less free to enjoy life and are more likely to adhere to social expectations
Minkov raised the following questions regarding Hofstede’s IBM model
- do the IBM worker represent national cultures? do the values replicate with other groups?
- do the questionnaires measure values correctly?
- is the cultural variation meaningful?
- ecological fallacy: be careful about interpretation
do the IBM worker represent national cultures? do the values replicate with other groups?
the model does not replicate well for dimensions such as uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity and those added later on. this is because IBM employees are not representative of the general population in other countries. moreover, the model was developed 50 years ago and cultures have certainly changed since then
do the questionnaires measure values correctly?
there are concerns about whether Hofstede’s questionnaire properly measure the cultural values it aims to asses. the individual index was used to measure individuals. the index does not match the definition of individuals used in this model
is the cultural variation meaningful?
- one would like to see that individuals in a country are much alike and individuals from different countries are less alike. however, the relationship is very weak, so individuals differ more within countries than between countries. thus, it is not meaningful
- the relationship is also very weak with external variables. this means that other measurement instruments that would illustrate the same thing do not
ecological fallacy: be careful about interpretation
inferring individual behavior from country-level data (ecological fallacy) is problematic. in fact, differences within countries may be greater than differences between countries
what does work?
the individualism/collectivism dimension has been reliably measured with other instruments, but even here differences between countries remain relatively small ( as shown in meta-analyses such as Oyserman’s study)
organizational culture
is the dynamic information system of attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviors within the organization that are transmitted to generations
organizational climate
refers to how employees perceive and share policies, practices and procedures within the organization. in addition, a distinction can be made in an employees commitment to an organization
a good match
occurs with employees have values that match those of their supervisors/leader, as a result they are more likely to be satisfied and committed. when they identify more with their organization, there is less employee turnover. the fit is less important when the employees have a few job choices
organizational commitment
different cultures differ in their level of commitment to work
normative commitment
the extent to which an individual’s relationship with an organization is driven by a sense of obligation and duties
affective commitment
the personal feelings and emotional attachment a person has toward their relationship with an organization
psychological contracts
a mutual expectations between organization and employees about obligations.
bamboo ceiling effect
means that people of asian descents are less likely to be in positions of power in countries such as the USA
social loafing
the decrease in productivity as the size of the group increases
social striving
increase in productivity as a group gets bigger
autocratic or parentalistic style of decision-making and interaction
here there is strict supervision that is seen positively by the submissive (employees). in high power distance cultures
participatory and consensual style of decision-making and interaction
here strict supervision is also perceived negatively by the employees. in low power distance cultures
paternalistic leadership
hierarchical relationship where the superior person provides guidance and nurturing and the submissive responds with loyalty (non-western cultures)
oligarchies
large companies are often structured like oligarchies, with only a limited number of people making decisions. this is because it is difficult to coordinate decisions with a large group of people. this top-down approach is typical of western context. this is a form in individualism with high power distance
ringi (Japanese process of decision-making)
a proposal is circulated to all the people who will be affected by it, regardless of their status or position. once a consensus is reached, the proposal reaches the leaders of the organization, who formally approve it. the process of reaching this consensus is called Nemawashi. this is more collectivistic with low power distance.
equity
whether your contribution and infills are included in the decision-making process. whether the person’s demographic characteristics are considered in the decision process
distributive justice
the distribution of products such as salary or benefits is distributed equitably
procedural justice
the processes and procedures that organization use for decision-making are fair
culture shock
includes fear, confusion, doubt or nervousness that arises during the process of adapting to a new culture. consists of 4 phases
honeymoon (phase 1)
very positive, especially if it is voluntary, the culture is fun and exciting
negotiation (phase 2)
more aware of the differences between old and new culture, this can provoke frustration or fear. this is the culture shock
adaptation (phase 3)
they adapt, to the cultural routine of other
mastery (phase 4)
fear no longer exists because they know how to deal with the new culture
reverse culture shock
the cultural shock experiences upon returning to one’s own culture
optimistic perspective of diversity assumes information-processing approach:
- diverse groups have more relevant information available to them through multiple available sources than homogenous groups
- it is necessary in these groups to express and work through conflicting perspectives, this reduces the risk of groupthink
- if the groups combine their various resources, superior performance can result
groupthink
making polarized decisions, inclined toward the group’s perspective
pessimistic perspective on diversity emanating from the social categorization perspective:
- diversity creates social division which can harm cooperation
- similar-attraction theory: people are attracted to people the resemble
- social identity theory: people categorize themselves and other into groups, with which they identify and try to promote themselves. in doing so, they may hinder intergroup relationships
- more room for intercultural misunderstandings
two sides of diversity
it lead to more creativity, increased performance and high quality decision but there is also more conflict, less effective communication and problematic intergroup relationships
solutions
- putting people of different cultures can actually be problematic but this can be solved by increasing opportunities for cross-cultural contact and experience
- in various cultures, people may also be selected and promoted based on bias. to avoid this, a reduction in bias must be created with an increase in opportunities to be transparent and accountable
- increased resistance, mistrust and conflict can be resolved through the promotion of inclusive multiculturationalism, thus including the perspectives of all
