Module 12: Culture and Organizations

Question 1

Hofstede

Answer 1

studies the work-related values of IBM employees beginning in the 1970s. from this he extracted four dimension on which he could classify cultural values at the country level (Hofstede’s dimensions)

Question 2

power distance (Hofstede’s dimensions)

Answer 2

the extend to which different cultures encourage or perpetuate power and status differences between people
- high power distance organizations are highly hierarchal and develop rules, mechanisms and rituals to reinforce status and power relations
- organizations with lower power distance are more egalitarian and minimize rules and customs

Question 3

individualism/collectivism (Hofstede’s dimensions)

Answer 3

the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups
- in individualistic cultures, individuals are expected to care only for themselves and their immediate family. there is emphasis on personal goals, independence and self-reliance
- in collectivist cultures, individuals are integrated into strong, cohesive groups (such as extended families) that protect them in exchange for loyalty. there is a strong emphasis on group harmony, cooperation and collective well-being. people tend to prioritize group goals and conformity over personal achievement

Question 4

masculinity/femininity (Hofstede’s dimensions)

Answer 4

the extend to which cultures promote or perpetuate gender differences in work-related values
- in masculine cultures, the emphasis is on competition, achievement, success and material rewards. there is often a clear distinction between gender roles, with men expected to be assertive and women expected to be caring
- in feminine cultures the emphasis is more on cooperation, caring for others and quality of life. gender roles are more fluid and both men and women are expected to share caring responsibilities

Question 5

uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede’s dimensions)

Answer 5

the extend to which different cultures develop ways of dealing with the fear and stress of uncertainties
- cultures with high uncertainty avoidance prefer structures environments, clear rules and predictable outcomes. they have a low tolerance for ambiguity, and high-averse behavior is common. organizations often develop strict rules, policies and rituals to manage uncertainty
- cultures with low uncertainty avoidance are more relaxed about change and unpredictability. people are more comfortable with ambiguity, innovation and risk-taking. organizations have fewer formal rules and are more open to flexibility

Question 6

long-term orientation vs short term orientation (additional dimension added later on)

Answer 6

the degree to which a culture values long-term, forward looking planning vs short-term, immediate results
- cultures with long-term orientation prioritize perseverance and adaptation to changing circumstances. they values future rewards, long-term commitments and nurturing relationships more than quick results
- cultures with short-term orientation focus on traditions, immediate results and maintaining social obligations. they tend to place more emphasis on present and the past than on the future long-term goals

Question 7

indulgence vs restraint (additional dimension added later on)

Answer 7

the degree to which societies allow relatively free gratification of basic human urges related to enjoying life and having fun
- in indulgent cultures, people are free to express their desires, enjoy life and engage in leisure activities. there is a greater emphasis on individual happiness and well-being, with fewer restrictions on behavior
- restrained cultures suppress the satisfaction of desires and regulate behavior through struct social norms. people feel less free to enjoy life and are more likely to adhere to social expectations

Question 8

Minkov raised the following questions regarding Hofstede’s IBM model

Answer 8

• do the IBM worker represent national cultures? do the values replicate with other groups?
• do the questionnaires measure values correctly?
• is the cultural variation meaningful?
• ecological fallacy: be careful about interpretation

Question 9

do the IBM worker represent national cultures? do the values replicate with other groups?

Answer 9

the model does not replicate well for dimensions such as uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity and those added later on. this is because IBM employees are not representative of the general population in other countries. moreover, the model was developed 50 years ago and cultures have certainly changed since then

Question 10

do the questionnaires measure values correctly?

Answer 10

there are concerns about whether Hofstede’s questionnaire properly measure the cultural values it aims to asses. the individual index was used to measure individuals. the index does not match the definition of individuals used in this model

Question 11

is the cultural variation meaningful?

Answer 11

• one would like to see that individuals in a country are much alike and individuals from different countries are less alike. however, the relationship is very weak, so individuals differ more within countries than between countries. thus, it is not meaningful
• the relationship is also very weak with external variables. this means that other measurement instruments that would illustrate the same thing do not

Question 12

ecological fallacy: be careful about interpretation

Answer 12

inferring individual behavior from country-level data (ecological fallacy) is problematic. in fact, differences within countries may be greater than differences between countries

Question 13

what does work?

Answer 13

the individualism/collectivism dimension has been reliably measured with other instruments, but even here differences between countries remain relatively small ( as shown in meta-analyses such as Oyserman’s study)

Question 14

organizational culture

Answer 14

is the dynamic information system of attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviors within the organization that are transmitted to generations

Question 15

organizational climate

Answer 15

refers to how employees perceive and share policies, practices and procedures within the organization. in addition, a distinction can be made in an employees commitment to an organization

Question 16

a good match

Answer 16

occurs with employees have values that match those of their supervisors/leader, as a result they are more likely to be satisfied and committed. when they identify more with their organization, there is less employee turnover. the fit is less important when the employees have a few job choices

Question 17

organizational commitment

Answer 17

different cultures differ in their level of commitment to work

Question 18

normative commitment

Answer 18

the extent to which an individual’s relationship with an organization is driven by a sense of obligation and duties

Question 19

affective commitment

Answer 19

the personal feelings and emotional attachment a person has toward their relationship with an organization

Question 20

psychological contracts

Answer 20

a mutual expectations between organization and employees about obligations.

Question 21

bamboo ceiling effect

Answer 21

means that people of asian descents are less likely to be in positions of power in countries such as the USA

Question 22

social loafing

Answer 22

the decrease in productivity as the size of the group increases

Question 23

social striving

Answer 23

increase in productivity as a group gets bigger

Question 24

autocratic or parentalistic style of decision-making and interaction

Answer 24

here there is strict supervision that is seen positively by the submissive (employees). in high power distance cultures

Question 25

participatory and consensual style of decision-making and interaction

Answer 25

here strict supervision is also perceived negatively by the employees. in low power distance cultures

Question 26

paternalistic leadership

Answer 26

hierarchical relationship where the superior person provides guidance and nurturing and the submissive responds with loyalty (non-western cultures)

Question 27

oligarchies

Answer 27

large companies are often structured like oligarchies, with only a limited number of people making decisions. this is because it is difficult to coordinate decisions with a large group of people. this top-down approach is typical of western context. this is a form in individualism with high power distance

Question 28

ringi (Japanese process of decision-making)

Answer 28

a proposal is circulated to all the people who will be affected by it, regardless of their status or position. once a consensus is reached, the proposal reaches the leaders of the organization, who formally approve it. the process of reaching this consensus is called Nemawashi. this is more collectivistic with low power distance.

Question 29

equity

Answer 29

whether your contribution and infills are included in the decision-making process. whether the person’s demographic characteristics are considered in the decision process

Question 30

distributive justice

Answer 30

the distribution of products such as salary or benefits is distributed equitably

Question 31

procedural justice

Answer 31

the processes and procedures that organization use for decision-making are fair

Question 32

culture shock

Answer 32

includes fear, confusion, doubt or nervousness that arises during the process of adapting to a new culture. consists of 4 phases

Question 33

honeymoon (phase 1)

Answer 33

very positive, especially if it is voluntary, the culture is fun and exciting

Question 34

negotiation (phase 2)

Answer 34

more aware of the differences between old and new culture, this can provoke frustration or fear. this is the culture shock

Question 35

adaptation (phase 3)

Answer 35

they adapt, to the cultural routine of other

Question 36

mastery (phase 4)

Answer 36

fear no longer exists because they know how to deal with the new culture

Question 37

reverse culture shock

Answer 37

the cultural shock experiences upon returning to one’s own culture

Question 38

optimistic perspective of diversity assumes information-processing approach:

Answer 38

• diverse groups have more relevant information available to them through multiple available sources than homogenous groups
• it is necessary in these groups to express and work through conflicting perspectives, this reduces the risk of groupthink
• if the groups combine their various resources, superior performance can result

Question 39

groupthink

Answer 39

making polarized decisions, inclined toward the group’s perspective

Question 40

pessimistic perspective on diversity emanating from the social categorization perspective:

Answer 40

• diversity creates social division which can harm cooperation
• similar-attraction theory: people are attracted to people the resemble
• social identity theory: people categorize themselves and other into groups, with which they identify and try to promote themselves. in doing so, they may hinder intergroup relationships
• more room for intercultural misunderstandings

Question 41

two sides of diversity

Answer 41

it lead to more creativity, increased performance and high quality decision but there is also more conflict, less effective communication and problematic intergroup relationships

Question 42

solutions

Answer 42

• putting people of different cultures can actually be problematic but this can be solved by increasing opportunities for cross-cultural contact and experience
• in various cultures, people may also be selected and promoted based on bias. to avoid this, a reduction in bias must be created with an increase in opportunities to be transparent and accountable
• increased resistance, mistrust and conflict can be resolved through the promotion of inclusive multiculturationalism, thus including the perspectives of all