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BIO10011 > MODULE 2 OVERVIEW > Flashcards

MODULE 2 OVERVIEW Flashcards

1
Q

Define evolution

A

the cumulative change in a population or species over time

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2
Q

Define macroevolution

A

major evolutionary changes among large taxonomic groups (at or above the species level) over LONG periods of time

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3
Q

Define microevolution

A

evolutionary change within a species or small group of organisms, especially over a short period.

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4
Q

What are some agents of change in evolution?

A
  • natural selection
  • mutation
  • sexual reproduction
  • genetic drift
  • gene flow
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5
Q

What is the Hardy-Weinberg theorem?

A
  • gives us the GENOTYPE frequencies expected for any possible set of allele frequencies
  • under certain conditions, allele frequencies WILLNOT change from one generation to the next
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6
Q

5 assumptions of HW theorem

A
  • no migration
  • no mutation
  • equal fitness (no selection)
  • random mating
  • infinite population size
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7
Q

How can we tell if observed genotype frequencies are different to frequencies expected under HWE?

A
  1. Calculate allele frequencies using population genotypes
  2. Use HW equation to calculate EXPECTED genotype frequencies (NULL HYPOTHESIS)
  3. Chi-squared test
  4. Check to see if the chi-squared value is significant
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8
Q

Define population

A

group of organisms that interact and share genetic information

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9
Q

Why is it useful to define population?

A
  • spread of disease
  • track resistance (e.g. insecticide)
  • risk of inbreeding
  • financial - bioprospecting
  • pest control, e.g. fox or feral cats
  • conservation e.g. monarch butterflies
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10
Q

Define gene pool

A

all the genetic variation that exists among all the individuals of a population

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11
Q

Smaller populations are ___ susceptible to change

A

more

  • also more susceptible to genetic drift + natural election
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12
Q

Define distribution

A

the area a population inhabits and density of the individuals

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13
Q

What is effective population size?

A

The effective population size is the size of an ideal population (i.e., one that meets all the Hardy-Weinberg assumptions) that would lose heterozygosity at a rate equal to that of the observed population.

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14
Q

Can somatic mutations get passed down?

A

No, not heritable generally, but can be passed down in plants e.g. through vegetative reproduction

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15
Q

Mutations in regulatory regions may affect. . .

A

gene expression

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16
Q

Mutations in coding regions may affect. . .

A

protein function (translation)

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17
Q

We know the small changes caused by mutations. What about the larger ones?

A
  • DNA is copied a second time and/or flipped around (inversion + duplication)
  • chromosomes are joined together or gained/lost (aneuploidy)
  • entire genomes are duplicated
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18
Q

What kind of mutation is sickle cell anemia?

A

point mutation

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19
Q

What kind of mutation is down’s syndrome?

A

aneuploidy (extra chromosome 21)

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20
Q

What is the common mutation rate in humans?

A

approximately one SNP per 30 million base pairs

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21
Q

Why should evolution favour asexual reproduction?

A
  • multiply faster
  • search cost eliminated
  • no risk of sexually transmitted infections
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22
Q

What are the benefits of sexual reproduction?

A
  • combining beneficial alleles
  • generation of novel genotypes
  • faster evolution
  • clearance of deleterious mutations
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23
Q

What is assortative mating?

A

like with like
= less genetic diversity

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24
Q

What is diassortive mating?

A

opposites attract

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25
Q

What are the 3 principles of natural selection?

A

1) variation
2) heredity
3) selection

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26
Q

What does the selection differential refer to?

A

the difference b/w population mean and selected mean

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27
Q

2 types of selection

A

1) directional
2) stabilizing
3) disruptive

28
Q

Industrial melanism is what kind of selection?

A

directional selection

29
Q

Selection acts on ___ alleles faster than on ___ alleles

A

Selection acts on dominant alleles faster than recessive alleles

30
Q

Why is selection not likely to drive a dominant allele to FIXATION?

A

recessive alleles can HIDE in the heterozygous state

31
Q

Why are favoured recessive alleles not exposed to selection initially?

A
  • because they are likely to occur only in the heterozygous genotypes
  • once recessive homozygous begin to appear, they quickly fit in the population
32
Q

What is balancing selection?

A

heterozygous advantage occurs when selection favours heterozygous individuals over homozygous (e.g. sickle cell)

33
Q

What is fitness?

A

the success of an organism at surviving and reproducing and thus contributing offspring to future generations

34
Q

What is genetic drift?

A

involves RANDOM changes in allele frequencies that are directionless

‘sampling error’

35
Q

The allele frequencies of the next generation are influenced by. . .

A

the ‘chance’ number of individuals that breed and the alleles they have

36
Q

Genetic drift is most pronounced in. . .

A

SMALL populations

37
Q

Large populations buffer genetic drift making it. . .

A

a LESS significant agent of change

populations don’t need to be infinite in size, but large enough that random sampling effects do NOT impact allele frequencies significantly

38
Q

What is the founder effect?

A

when a small number of individuals found a new population

  • random differences in allele frequencies occur when a small colony splits from a large population
39
Q

What is genetic bottleneck?

A

caused by events that reduce the size and genetic diversity of a population significantly

e.g. a bushfire impacts allele frequencies in a population by CHANCE

40
Q

What is the result of a genetic bottleneck?

A

populations contain a SMALLER, mostly RANDOM sample of the alleles that were present in the original ppopulation

41
Q

3 issues of a genetic bottleneck

A
  • increased homozygosity (issues arise in the case of recessive deleterious alleles)
  • fixation of alleles (small populations affected more by genetic drift)
  • less potential adaptive capacity (less variation for natural selection to work w)
42
Q

The chance of losing alleles after bottleneck or founder events depends on. . . ?

A

1) their initial frequency

2) new population size

43
Q

Following a bottleneck or founder event, population size. . .

A

may recover quickly

but genetic diversity will not

44
Q

What are some implications of genetic drift?

A

1) conservation –> fragmented populations will continue to LOSE genetic diversity via drift

2) speciation –> populations that STOP exchanging alleles and continue to differentiate due to genetic drift and/or other agents of change may become separate species

45
Q

What is gene flow?

A

the transfer of genetic info from one population to another and sharing of genetic info via migration, movement, or hybridisation

46
Q

For gene flow to occur, individuals must be able to. . .

A

disperse
interbreed
produce viable offspring

47
Q

Gene flow tends to . . .

A

homogenize more connected populations

48
Q

A lack of gene flow promotes. . .

A

interpopulation differentiation

49
Q

What is hybridisation?

A

interbreeding of individuals from genetically distinct populations or closely related species (offspring may be sterile)

  • integration of alleles from diff genetic background
50
Q

The IMPACT of gene flow on the gene pool depends on:

A

1) the extent of movement

2) the genetic difference between populations

51
Q

What makes migration a significant evolutionary agent for a population?

A

1) when the difference in allele frequencies in residents (p) and migrants (x) is GREAT

2) when migration rate (m) is HIGH

52
Q

Define speciation

A

the evolutionary process by which new species arise through reproductive isolation

53
Q

Types of reproductive barriers

A

1) pre-mating reproductive isolation (geographic + behavioural isolation)

2) Pre-zygotic reproductive isolation (sperm can’t reach egg - timing + ecological isolation)

3) Post-zygotic isolation (prevents hybrid zygotes from developing / reproducing)

54
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

speciation in DIFFERENT geographic locations

55
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

speciation in the SAME location

56
Q

What is adaptive radiation?

A

very rapid evolution of many species through adapting to underutilized ecological niches

57
Q

Why is it useful to define a species?

A
  • conservation
  • food
  • safety
  • medical
  • recreational (catch limits when fishing)
58
Q

What is adaptive introgression?

A

inheritance of beneficial variation from related species that accelerate adaptation to, and survival in new environments

59
Q

What is introgression?

A

describes the movement of alleles from one species or population to another

60
Q

What is lignin?

A

a polymer deposited predominantly in the walls of plant cells, providing structure and making them rigid

61
Q

Molecular genetics

A

involves the study of DNA sequences encoding specific GENES to understand FUNCTION

62
Q

Genomics

A

the study of the DNA sequence of all the organism’s genes

63
Q

How is variation investigated (using genomics)?

A

1) compare specific situations (controls vs cases)

2) look across the distribution of a phenotype

3) look at the evolutionary relationships

64
Q

Genomic analysis of many individuals

A

1) collect samples

2) create libraries

3) investigate one gene / genome

4) identify SNPs & other genetic variaitons

65
Q

What is phylogenetics?

A

the study of evolutionary relationships among biological organisms based on:

1) similarities / differences in DNA

2) molecular clocks

3) phenotypes

4) fossil record (used for calibration)

BIO10011 (23 decks)

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