Module 12 Flashcards
Linguistic Variables
-Exists if there is more than one way of expressing a certain word or concept in a language
~For example
*Bucket vs. Pail =lexical variable
*Either: ‘ee-ther’ vs. ‘eye-ther’ = phonetic variable
*Me and Sally vs. Sally and me = grammatical variable
~Linguistic variables occur at all levels of linguistic structures. They include words, pronunciations, grammatical constructions, syntactic patterns, sematic interpretations, pragmatic strategies…
-Linguistic variables must be variable!
~There have to be multiple options (variants) for a speaker to use
*Otherwise there is no variation
-For instance, when saying the word “caught” some speakers use [ɑ] while others use [ɔ]
~The linguistic variable is the phonetic quality of the vowel, with two possible variants: [ɑ] or [ɔ]
-Another commonly studied linguistic variable is the use of quotatives
~Whether speakers use “She said” or “She says” or “She was all” or “She was like” or “She was all like” or “She’s like” or “She went” when quoting somebody
*She said, “Language variation is very interesting.”
*She went, “Language variation is very interesting.”
*She was all like, “Language variation is very interesting.”
~Linguistic variable = quotatives
*With at least 7 different variants (maybe more!)
Linguistic approaches to variation
-Three main goals of linguists who study language variation:
~Identify the variable and its variants [ɑ] or [ɔ], or ‘said’ vs ‘was like’ vs ‘went’
~Determine why the variable exists
~Determine how the variable patterns across speakers of a language
*Who uses each variable? What explanation can we offer for the variation?
Social and regional variables
- In order to determine how linguistic variables patter in a language, sociolinguists must also identify regional and social variables
~English speakers who live in Albuquerque may speak differently than people who live in Houston, Texas
*Region is a variable
*Albuquerque and Houston are regional variants
**If speakers of the same language live in different regions, there are necessarily regional variables
There are four social variation involves groups of speakers who are connected via non-geographic factors
- Socioeconomic class
- Gender
- Ethnicity
- Age
Socioeconomic Class
-Commonly described in terms of upper, middle (Upper and lower middle), or working class
~Class can incorporate many different elements including occupation, income, neighborhood, level of education, etc.
Gender
-Up until recently has been studied primarily in terms of traditional binary gender roles- male and female
~Also in terms of ‘masculine’ vs. ‘feminine’ behaviors
Ethnicity
-Can be based either on a person’s ancestry, cultural affiliation, physical appearance, or how a person identifies, ethnically
Age
-Differences between speakers of different ages, across generations
~(younger vs older speakers)
Social variation
-Characteristics associated with certain social groups such as age, gender, or class
~We can study variation in language use between men and woman. Gender would be the social variable in such a study
~We can study variation language use between members of different ethnic groups. Ethnicity would be the social variable in such a study
~We can study variation in language use between older and younger generations of speakers. Age would be the social variable in such a study.
-Because these different social categories interact (each speaker is a member of multiple different social categories), we usually analyze multiple social variables in a single study
~For instance, we may analyze difference in age, gender, and class, all at once
Synchronic
-Involves studying language patters of speakers/signers at the same point in time
~A study comparing the use of Japanese-origin words across different social groups in Hawaii in the summer of 2005
Diachronic
-Involves studying language patterns of speakers/signers across time
~A study comparing the use of German discourse patterns in 1975 with the use of German discourse patterns in 2020
Labov’s Department Store Study
-One of the most famous studies in sociolinguistics in Bill Labov’s department store study (1966)
~The study focused on the social stratification of the use of the r [ɹ] in New York City in the (1960s)
~Labov went to three different department stores which represented three different social classes (Saks Fifth Avenue, Macy’s, and S. Klein)
and asked questions designed to elicit the answer “fourth floor”
-He found that the higher the socioeconomic status of the store, the more /r/ sounds were produced
-So, increased use of the /r/ seems to have been associated with increased social class
~While decreased use of /r/ (also called ‘r-lessness’) was associated with the ‘lower’ or ‘working lass
-Social Variable
~Social class
-Linguistic variable
~Production or /r/
-Labov’s Study was
~Synchronic
A similar study was conducted in Reading, England
-upper class speakers didn't pronounce /r/ hardly at all, while lower class speakers pronounced it most of the time ~In this case, /r/ was associated with lower-class speech, while lack of /r/ was an upper-class feature -The same variable can be socially marked in different communities... but the social meanings of those variables vary from community to community
Linguistic variables
-Other linguistic variables that are often associated with certain dialects in English are ~Pronunciation of word final-ing *Walking vs walking ~H-dropping *He's hungry vs 'e's 'ungry ~Use of double negatives *We don't got no time for that ~Use of the word "ain't"
Sociolects
-A certain dialect is associated with a certain social group
~For instance, the use of /r/ in the speech of upper-class citizens in New York could be considered one aspect of an upper-class sociolect
~We can also use more specific terms like genderlect or ethnolect
Ethnolects
-Language varieties associated with certain ethnic groups
~African American English (also have AAVE, Spoken Soul, Ebonics)
~Chicano English (also called Hispanic English, Mexican English, Spanish-influenced English)
~Asian-American English
~Native American English
-Ethnolects were originally described by sociolinguists who wanted to
~Prove the validity of the dialects -> prove that they are perfectly acceptable forms of English
~Address the way speaking a nonstandard variety affects educational progress
-Led it increased understanding about dialect differences and the importance of multidialectal education
-Also led to a lot of misconceptions about ‘ethnolects’ in general
~There is not one homogenous variety that all people of any one race speak
*For instance, not all Hispanic speakers speak ChE, and not only Hispanic speakers speak it
*Despite the way ethnolects are labeled, commonalities and differences in language use across members of different ethnic groups has very little to do with biological genealogy and more to do with in-group identity
Dialect labels
-Most dialects are not as homogenous as their names suggest
~For instance, there is a lot of variation within each dialect, just as there is a lot of variation within each region or social group
*Consider the label “American English” and all of the variation among people who identify as “American”
-Most dialects are not exclusive to the groups they’re named after
-Misunderstandings often lead to stereotypes about speakers
~Perpetuation of racist ideas
Dialect surveys
-In order to analyze linguistic variables, linguistics must have quality language data
~Remember, descriptive linguists want to know the objective facts about language
~One method of data collection is the dialect survey
*Researchers ask people how they say different things
**Traditionally associated with regional rather than social variation
Regional Variation
-Dialect surveys allow us to chart where different dialects are spoken
~Responses to questions about different linguistic variables are correlated with the region participants are from (city, state, country, etc.)
~Patterns can be observed regarding different ways of speaking in different regions
*For example, we can ask people if they are more likely to say “paper sack” or “paper bag”
*We would then chart the responses on the map and see where people say “sack” vs “bag”
*When there is a significant pattern, we can draw a line on a map around that areas where each variant is spoken- that line is called an isogloss
-If multiple distinct features are found in one area, a Dialect Boundary can be drawn
-Using dialect surveys to map isoglosses and dialect boundaries is useful for getting a broad idea about regional dialects- but the boundaries are not absolute
~Dialects merge across boundaries
~Dialects exist along a continuum
*Dialect surveys show general tendencies
-It is hard to be certain if the people you are surveying are typical speakers of a variety
~Some people are ‘quintessential’ models of a dialect
~Some people may have some of the dialect features but not others
~Some people may live in a region and have few or no dialect features that are considered ‘typical’ for that region
*The dialect surveys of the twentieth century included a lot of NORM (non-mobile, older, rural, male speakers)
Isogloss
-Represents a boundary between the areas with regard to one linguistic variable
Dialect Boundary
- Multiple isoglosses coming together suggests a regional dialect
- Having one distinctive linguistic feature does not constitute a dialect- dialects have multiple distinctive linguistic features
- Dialects are spoken by groups of speakers
