Module 11 Flashcards
Language variation
-It’s common to talk about language as if language has only one variety
~For instance, people often talk about “English” as a single cohesive entity, a conceptual whole, without acknowledging the many different ways that people speak English
~In fact, all languages have multiple varieties
*Multiple ways of using the same language
-Even though many people speak the same language, that doesn’t mean that all of those people use that language the same way
~No two speakers of a language speak exactly the same way
~And no one person speaks exactly the same way all the time
*Variation is a natural part of human language
**Language variation is influenced by many regional and societal factors
-Language variation is everywhere
-Consider English… there is variation between
~Countries (England vs USA)
~States (New York vs Texas)
~Cities (Santa Fe vs Portales, NM)
~Neighborhoods within a single city (NE Heights vs South Valley, NM)
~Gender, ethnic groups, social classes, etc.
-There is even variation within the speech of one speaker-we speak differently depending on the context: who we’re with, where we are, what we’re doing, what we’re talking about
-Al linguists we can analyze and describe observable patterns of variation in language
~Describe different features as well as who uses those features and in what contexts
-We can also analyze speakers attitudes and ideologies about language differences
~Determine what people think about language, and why
Sociolinguistics
-The study of language and society- particularly the social implications of variation within and across languages
-Sociolinguistics is a very broad and diverse field
~Language attitudes and ideologies
~Dialect formation, dialect description
~Linguistic identity construction
~Language contact and language change
~Language ideology and policy
~Language revitalization and reclamation
What is a dialect?
-Professional students of language typically use the term DIALECT as a NEUTRAL label to refer to any variety of language that is shared by a group of speakers (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes 2007, p.2)
~Dialect = variety
*Note: an accent refers specifically to the pronunciation features of a variety; a dialect refers to a variety as a whole, including pronunciation features, unique lexical items, and grammatical structures
-Do nonlinguistis’ think of dialects in the same way as linguists?
Myths about dialects
-Myth 1
~A dialect is something that somenone else speaks
*Hand-drawn maps reveal this common misperception
*Reality: Everyone speaks at least one dialect of their language
**Often more than one
-Myth 2
~Dialects always have noticeable features that set them apart
*For example, some people think there is no dialect in the mid-western US
**Because they cannot think of an identifying feature for it
~Reality: Some dialect features get more attention than others, but all dialects have linguistic features which set them apart from others, but all dialects have linguistic features which set them apart from other dialects. Some dialects may go unnoticed, but that is NOT because they don’t have features that set them apart from other dialects
-Myth 3
~Only varieties spoken by socially DISFAVORED groups are dialects
~Reality: There ae socially favored and socially disfavored dialects
*Can you think of varieties spoken by socially FAVORED groups, i.e. groups who have sociopolitical power? Are these dialects, too?
-Myth 4
~Dialects result from unsuccessful attempts to speak the “correct” form of a language
~Reality: Speakers acquire their language by ADOPTING THE SPEECH FEATURES OF THOSE AROUND THEM, not by failing their attempts to adopt standard language features
-Myth 5
~DIalects have no linguistic patterning in their own right; they are deviations from standard speech
~Reality: All dialects are systematic and regular; furthermore, socially disfavored dialects can be described with the same kind of precision as standard language varieties
-Myth 6
~Dialects inherently carry negative social connotations
~Reality: Dialects are not necessary positively or negatively valued- there is nothing about the structure of different dialects that makes one a ‘better’ form of language. Rather, their social values are derived from the social position of their communities of speakers
*The principle of linguistic subordination
Perception of dialects
-Why are some dialects perceived to be better than others?
~Standardization + prescriptivism
Standardization
- Informal Standard
- Defining an Informal standard
Informal standard
- What does it mean when we say someone speaks ‘spandard American English’ or ‘standard Mexican Spanish’?
- There notations exist. People DO have perceptions of what a standard variety is (think of Michiganders calling thier speech “normal” or people thinking Midwesterners don’t speak a dialect)
- But notions of standards can vary by region, by speech communities
- So, how can we define what an ‘informal standard’ is?
Defining an Informal standard
- “…standard American English seems to be determined more BY WHAT IT IS NOT than by what it is. To a large extent, American English speech samples rated as a standard English by a cross-section of listeners exhibit a range of regional variation in pronunciation and vocabulary items, but they DO NOT CONTAIN GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES THAT ARE SOCIALLY STIGMATIZED”
- “In this kind of assessment, informal standard English is [when]… a person’s speech is free of socially disfavored structures, then it is considered standard” (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes 2007)
How is ‘standard English’ defined in the US?
-It’s the ABSENCE OF STIGMATIZED FEATURES
-“Standard American English” is the overlapping connection of all the variations
-Not all varieties overlap equally with SAE
~There are more stigmatized features in varieties associated with ethnic minorities and working-class people
~That’s why some people think of SAE as sounding “white” or “upper-class”
Inforaml and formal standards
-This general of what the ‘standard’ or ‘normal’ way of speaking is considered the informal standard
~It’s not foramallty enforced by any specific entity, but it is widely accepted by members of a society
~Some languages have a formal standard as well
Standardization: Formal
- Formal standard: “language norms are PRESCRIBED by recognized sources of AUTHORITY, such as grammar and usage books, dictionaries and institutions like language academies” (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes 2007 p. 10)
- Prescriptive rules determined by authorities
- Applies primarily to written forms of language and language used in formal setting
Standardization in other countries
-Formal standardization processes may vary
~Language academies: Arabic, French, German, Portuguese, Serbian, Spanish, Swahili, Urdu
-When we’re thinking about language attitudes and options of the general public, we typically focus on the informal standard
The Standard Variety
-Is often idealized by the society to which it belongs
~It is often perceived as the ‘right’ or ‘proper’ way to use a language
*People often think that it is “more grammatical.” is more logical, or has “better grammar” than other varieties
**This is not the case! Remember, all language varieties have structural rules and are grammatical!
-It is usually the variety used by those in power (usually people who are wealthy, educated, or in powerful political or economic positions)
-It is the variety that is usually adopted by the educational system, the government, media, and large corporations as the most ‘neutral’ or ‘acceptable’ variety of a language
~It receives INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT
-It is often encouraged for things like job interviews and public speaking
~In many societies, using the standard variety can provide an economic advantage, while using non-standard varieties can be economically disadvantageous
-It is the variety most speech synthesizers attempt to imitate
~Because of its perceived neutrality
*no accent = everyone can understand it
**or at least, that’s a common assumption
-The term “standard variety” makes it sound like it would be the most widely used variety…but that’s not necessarily the case
~The standard variety does NOT refer to the most common or widely used variety
~Very few people speak a truly ‘neutral’ variety
*Most people have language feature that differs from the perceived ‘standard’ in some way
~Although some may sound ‘more standard’ than others
*The fewer stigmatized features you use, the more ‘standard’ you sound
Vernacular
-Refers to any variety that is not considered
~Varieties that contain socially stigmatized features
~”Vernacular” = ‘Nonstandard”
-Note that speakers of vernacular may vary in term of how many or which of the socially stigmatized features they employ
~Just because two people speak the same dialect does not mean they speak exactly the same way
The term ‘vernacular’
-In general, it describes the ‘non-standardness’ of a variety, which is typically a matter of degree
~Standard ——– Non-standard or: Vernacular
-Most speakers have command of a CONTINUUM from a formal/standard style to a more infromal/vernacular style
~We shift our speech style in different situations
