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TOS I/O Psych > Module 1: Organization and Organizational Theory > Flashcards

Module 1: Organization and Organizational Theory Flashcards

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1
Q

Organization

A

+ A coordinated group of people who perform tasks to produce goods or services, colloquially referred to as companies
+ Collectivities of parts that cannot accomplish their goals effectively if they operated separately
+ A tool people use to coordinate their actions to obtain something they desire or value to achieve a goal
+ Social entity, made up of people that agree on, and work towards goals
+ Org creates value, or else the “die”

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2
Q

How do organizations create value?

A

Environment (Customers, Suppliers) > Input (Raw Materials, IT, HR) > Process (Machines, Computers, KSAOs) > Output (Products, Services)

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3
Q

Organizational Theory

A

set of propositions that explains or predicts how group and individuals behave in varying organizational structures and circumstances

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4
Q

What are the different organizational theories?

A
  1. Classical Theory
  2. Neoclassical Theory
  3. Systems Theory
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5
Q

Classical Organizational Theory

A

+ organizations exists for economic reasons and to accomplish productivity goals
+ defined the structure of an organization in terms of four principles: functional, scalar, line/staff, and span of control
+ assumes there is one best configuration to accomplish goals
+ scientific analysis will identify the ONE best way to organize for production
+ deals with formal organization and concepts to increase management efficiency
+ both people and organizations act in accordance with rational economic principles

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6
Q

What are the basic components that the classical organizational theory promotes for a company to be able to accomplish its objectives?

A
  1. System of differentiated activities
  2. People
  3. Cooperation toward a goal
  4. Authority
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7
Q

System of differentiated activities

A

activities that are linked to each other

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8
Q

People

A

performs tasks and exercises authority

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9
Q

Cooperation toward a goal

A

unity of purpose in pursuit of their common goals

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10
Q

Authority

A

ensures cooperation among people pursuing their goals

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11
Q

According to the classical organizational theory, what must be done to be successful?

A

To be successful in this new economy, industrial and mechanical engineers are needed to organize production systems to keep the machines busy and work flowing

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12
Q

Functional Principle

A

concept behind division of labor, that is, organizations should be divided into units that perform similar functions into areas of specialization

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13
Q

Scalar Principle

A

deals with the organization’s vertical growth and refers to the chain of command that grows with levels added to the organization

+ Each subordinate should be accountable to only one superior (unity of command)

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14
Q

Line Functions

A

have primary responsibilities for meeting the major goals of the organization, like the production department

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15
Q

Staff Functions

A

support the line’s activities but are regarded as subsidiary in overall importance to line functions

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16
Q

Span-Of-Control Principle

A

refers to the number of subordinates a manager is responsible for supervising

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17
Q

What does a large span-of-control produce?

A

It produces a flat organization

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18
Q

What does a small span-of-control produce?

A

It produces a tall organization

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19
Q

What are the branches of the classical organizational theory?

A
  1. Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor
  2. Bureaucracy by Max Weber
  3. Administrative Management by Henri Fayol
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20
Q

Scientific Management

A

+ Made by Frederick Taylor
+ The organization is a machine, a pragmatic machine whose focus is to simply run more effectively
+ Taylor believed that scientific principles could be applied to the study of work behavior to help increase worker efficiency and productivity
+ Based on the concept of planning of work to achieve efficiency, standardization, specialization, and simplification
+ The advantages of productivity improvement should go to workers
+ Physical stress and anxiety should be eliminated
+ Capabilities of workers should be developed through training
+ Traditional boss concept should be eliminated
+ Mainly associated with high levels of job specialization and standardization
+ Conducted time and motion studies and analyzed temperature, illumination, and other conditions of work, all while looking at the effects of these conditions on productivity and efficiency
+ Taylorism: has a premise that there is one best way to get the job done
+ Management gathers data from the workers, who are in the best position to understand the job duties and tasks
+ Workers are selected carefully or scientifically and trained so that they become more efficient than ever
+ Scientific selection, data collection, and training are combined to enhance efficiency
+ The work itself is redistributed, with management taking over tasks previously left to subordinated
+ The most effective companies have detailed procedures and work practices developed by engineers, enforced by supervisors, and executed by employees
+ Taylor, along with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth implemented the principles of scientific management
+ Worker efficiency would lead to greater managerial efficiency
+ Scientific Selection of the worker
+ Management and labor cooperation rather than conflict
+ Scientific training of the worker

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21
Q

Bureaucracy

A

+ by Max Weber
+ Described the structure, organization, and operation of many efficient organization
+ ideal form of organization
+ includes formal hierarchy, division of labor, and a clear set of operating procedures
+ Well-defined authority hierarchy with strict rules for governing behavior, with few members with highest status on the top
+ Increase productivity by reducing inefficiencies in organizational operations
+ Tend to be top-down pyramidal organization
+ Characterized by Span of Control (number of subordinates who report to a given supervisor)

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22
Q

What are the characteristics of a Bureaucratic Organization?

A
  1. Specialization of labor
  2. Well-defined authority hierarchy
  3. Formal rules and procedures
  4. Impersonality
  5. Employment decisions based on merit
  6. Emphasis on written records
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23
Q

Impersonality

A

behavior is based on logical reasoning rather than emotional thinking

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24
Q

What is division of labor (according to Bureaucracy)?

A

each job is a specialized
position with its own set of responsibilities and duties; division of tasks performed in an organization

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25
Q

What is a difficulty in division of labor (according to Bureaucracy)?

A

One potential difficulty involves the coordination of various tasks handled by various employees

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26
Q

Delegation of Authority

A

approach whereby supervisors assign tasks to separate employees and hold them responsible for completing these tasks (Micromanagers); information about which lower-level employees report to higher-level employees

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27
Q

Structure

A

+ formal way an org is designed in terms of division of labor, delegation of authority, and span of control
+ hierarchy, top-down, and uses legitimate power

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28
Q

What are the principles of scientific approach (according to bureaucracy)?

A
  1. Structure
  2. Specialization
  3. Predictability and Stability
  4. Rationality
  5. Democracy
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29
Q

Specialization

A

functional basis, separated according to specialization

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30
Q

Predictability and Stability

A

there must be rules and regulations

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31
Q

Rationality

A

equal treatment, no bias/subjective in selection

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32
Q

Democracy

A

ability to vote

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33
Q

Administrative Management

A

+ by Henri Fayol
+ Aims to improve organizational productivity by focusing on methods that managers can use to synchronize internal processes
+ Managerial practices are the key to driving efficiency in organizations
+ Seeks to heighten managerial performance instead on individual worker efficiency
+ Proposed the creation of work groups and functional departments wherein district activities are performed which contribute to the accomplishment of greater tasks

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34
Q

What are the principles of Administrative Management?

A
  1. Division of Specialization
  2. Authority and Responsibility
  3. Discipline
  4. Unity of Command
  5. Unity of Direction
  6. Subordination of Individual Interest
  7. Remuneration of Personnel
  8. Centralization
  9. Scalar Chain
  10. Order
  11. Equity
  12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel
  13. Initiative
  14. Esprit de Corps
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35
Q

Division of Specialization (according to Administrative Management)

A

employees can become more proficient in the accomplishment of a limited set of activities – thus, improving their output

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36
Q

What are the terms for Division of Specialization?

A
  1. Employed
  2. Underemployed
  3. Unemployed
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37
Q

Employed

A

working in the person’s chosen field of specialization

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38
Q

Underemployed

A

employed in a field that is not under a person’s specialization

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39
Q

Unemployed

A

no work

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40
Q

Authority and Responsibility

A

managers should have the authority to issue commands, but it comes with the responsibility to ensure the work gets done

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41
Q

Discipline

A

subordinates must fully obey instructions from superiors (discipline through management)

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42
Q

Unity of Command

A

only one executive wherein the employees get instructions

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43
Q

Unity of Direction

A

each workgroup or department is working under a singular plan that coordinates effort (guided by one supervisor)

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44
Q

Subordination of Individual Interest

A

interests of individuals are subordinate to the general interests of the group or company

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45
Q

Remuneration of Personnel

A

compensation is used to incentivize worker performance

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46
Q

Centralization

A

decision-making should be either centralized or decentralized, depending upon the characteristics of the organization and worker competency

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47
Q

Scalar Chain

A

there must be a hierarchy of authority that places workers below managers in the reporting structure

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48
Q

Order

A

there must be a designed rules and standards for the work environment and work responsibilities

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49
Q

Equity

A

organization must run based upon principles of fairness

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50
Q

Stability of Tenure of Personnel

A

low turnover; allows employees to learn their jobs, develop skills, and acquire loyalty

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51
Q

Progressive Discipline

A

method of discipline that uses graduated steps for dealing with problems or related to an employee’s conduct or performance that do not meet clearly defined standards and policies

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52
Q

Initiative

A

must promote initiative by allowing employees to create plans and carry them out

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53
Q

Esprit de Corps

A

establishing a sense of belonging within the organization creates a sense of unity and moral

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54
Q

What are functions of management (administrative management)?

A
  1. Planning
  2. Organizing
  3. Staffing
  4. Coordinating
  5. Directing
  6. Reporting
  7. Budgeting
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55
Q

Structural Theory

A

+ Harry Mintzberg proposed how organizations evolve to reach a certain form and shape (structure) which permits the organization to function in its surroundings
+ The structure of an organization is an adaptive mechanism that permits the organization to function in its surroundings

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56
Q

What are the seven parts of an organization?

A
  1. Operating Core
  2. Strategic Apex
  3. Middle Line
  4. Technostructure
  5. Support Staff
  6. Ideology
  7. Politics
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57
Q

Operating Core

A

responsible for conducting basic work duties that give the organization its defining purpose; transform raw goods into a sellable products

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58
Q

Strategic Apex

A

responsible for the overall success of the entire organization; associated with executive leadership

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59
Q

Middle Line

A

ensures that overall goals set by strategic apex are being carried out by the operating core

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60
Q

Technostructure

A

possess specific technical expertise that facilitates overall operation of the organization; accounting, HR, IT, law departments

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61
Q

Support Staff

A

aid the basic mission of the organization and typically includes the mailroom, security, and janitorial services

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62
Q

Ideology

A

belief system that compels commitment to a particular value; organizations should have singularly devoted to a particular mission, and all its actions are in pursuit if that mission; employees behave in accordance with their sincere conviction in the ideology of the organization, and can perform their work relatively independent of each other

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63
Q

Politics

A

side effects of ideology, causes divisiveness and conflict; the basis is the use of power that is neither formally authorized or widely accepted in the organization

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64
Q

Neoclassical Theory

A

+ recognizes the importance of individual or group behavior and emphasized human relations
+ also known as Behavioral Theory of Organization, Human Relations, or New Classical Theory of Management
+ Based on Elton Mayo, Chester Bernard, and Herbert Simon’s theories
+ Adds a personal element or human element to the study of organization, considering the interrelationship between an organization’s requirements and the characteristics of its members
+ Productivity was achieved as a result of high morale, which was influenced by the amount of individual, personal, and intimate attention workers received
+ Introduced informal organization and emphasized the: individual, work group, and participative management
+ Group, Humanistic, Individual

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65
Q

What are the theories under the Neoclassical Theory?

A
  1. Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Experiment
  2. Chester Bernard’s Comprehensive Theory of Behavior in Formal Organizations
  3. Herbert Simon’s Application of Classical Theories to current situations of his time
  4. McGregor’s Theory of X and Theory Y
  5. Argyris’ Growth Perspective
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66
Q

Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Experiment

A

+ Conducted in Western Electric Company; Hawthorne, Chicago
+ Study if the workers would be more productive depending on the levels of illumination in the factory
+ Increased productivity when lighting conditions improved
+ Workers motivation increased due to interest shown by the company in them and their well-being

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67
Q

Chester Bernard’s Comprehensive Theory of Behavior in Formal Organizations

A

+ People in executive roles must foster a sense of purpose, moral codes, ethical visions, and create formal and informal communication systems
+ People should cooperate, thus making no place for conflicts among workers

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68
Q

Herbert Simon’s Application of Classical Theories to current situations of his time

A

+ Contradicted Henri Fayol’s Administrative Management

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69
Q

Movements under Herbert Simon’s Application of Classical Theories (to current situations of his time)

A
  1. Human Relations Movement
  2. Behavioral Movement
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70
Q

Human Relations Movement

A

+ social and psychological factors are important in determining worker productivity and satisfaction
+ efficient leaders are employee-centric, democratic, and follow a participative style

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71
Q

Behavioral Movement

A

proposes ideas how managers should behave to motivate the employees

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72
Q

Argyris’ Growth Perspective

A

+ Growth was a natural and healthy experience for an individual
+ Organizations that acknowledged and aided this growth would be more likely to prosper than those that are ignored or actively inhibited this growth
+ Passive to active organisms

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73
Q

Humanistic Theory

A

organizational success in terms of employee motivation and the interpersonal relationships that emerge within the organization

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74
Q

Theory X and Theory Y

A

+ by McGregor
+ managers’ beliefs and assumptions about their employees determine how they behave towards those employees

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75
Q

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A

employees, over time, learn to act and believe in ways consistent with how managers think they act and believe

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76
Q

How are employees viewed under Theory X?

A

+ employees are viewed to lazy, selfish, uninterested in work, lack in ambition, and not very intelligent
+ employees are passive and unresponsive to organization’s needs
+ lack of focus would lead to apathy

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77
Q

How do managers act under Theory X?

A

+ managers control and direct employees in order to make outputs

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78
Q

How are employees viewed under Theory Y?

A

much more humanistic and developmental orientation, emphasizing not only the inherent goodness, capacity, and potential of employees but also their readiness to develop those inherent characteristics

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79
Q

What does Theory Y emphasize?

A

emphasizes management’s responsibility for nurturing those qualities and providing employees with opportunities to develop their inherently positive characteristics in the workplace

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80
Q

What is the difference between Theory X and Theory Y?

A

Theory Y is without unduly constraining organizational or managerial controls

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81
Q

Between Theory X and Theory Y, what is the most common set of beliefs?

A

Theory X

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82
Q

Motivation

A

the internal force that drives a worker to action as well as the external factors that encourage that action

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83
Q

What does ability and skill determine in a worker?

A

Ability and skill determines whether the worker can do the job

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84
Q

What does motivation determine in a worker?

A

Motivation determines whether a worker can do their work properly

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85
Q

What are the three individual difference traits that are most related to work motivation?

A
  1. Self-esteem
  2. Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation
  3. Needs for Achievement and Power
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86
Q

Self-esteem

A

the extent to which a person views himself as valuable and worthy

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87
Q

What happens if employees have high self-esteem?

A

Employees high in self-esteem are more motivated and will perform better than employees low in self-esteem

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88
Q

Consistency Theory

A

employees who feel good about themselves are motivated to perform better at work than employees who do not feel that they are valuable and worthy people

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89
Q

Why do employees who have low self-esteem not work well according to the Consistency Theory?

A

Employees try to perform at levels consistent with self-esteem is compounded by the fact that employees with low self-esteem tend to underestimate their actual ability and performance

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90
Q

What are the different kinds of self-esteem?

A
  1. Chronic
  2. Situational
  3. Socially Influenced
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91
Q

Chronic Self-Esteem

A

person’s overall feeling about himself

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92
Q

Situational Self-Esteem

A

person’s feeling about himself in a particular situation

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93
Q

Socially Influenced Self-Esteem

A

how a person feels about himself on the basis of the expectations of others

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94
Q

What can be done to increase self-esteem in employees?

A

To increase self-esteem, employees can attend workshops in which they are given insights into their strengths

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95
Q

Experience-with-Success

A

employee is given a task so easy that he will almost certainly succeed

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96
Q

Galatea Effect

A

the relationship between self-expectations and performance

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97
Q

Pygmalion/Rosenthal Effect

A

if an employee feels that the manager has confidence in him, his self-esteem will increase

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98
Q

Golem Effect

A

occurs when negative expectations of an individual cause a decrease in that individual’s actual performance

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99
Q

What should supervisors/managers be trained in to increase self-esteem in an employee?

A

Train supervisors to communicate a feeling of confidence in an employee

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100
Q

What are two types of motivation?

A
  1. Intrinsic Motivation
  2. Extrinsic Motivation
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101
Q

Intrinsic Motivation

A

they will seek to perform well because they either enjoy performing the actual tasks or enjoy the challenge of successfully completing the task

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102
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

they don’t particularly enjoy the tasks but are motivated to perform well to receive some type of reward or to avoid negative consequences

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103
Q

Work Preference Inventory

A

measures the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

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104
Q

Needs for Achievement and Power

A

employees differ in the extent to which they are motivated by the need for achievement, affiliation, and power

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105
Q

Need for Achievement

A

Employees who have strong need for achievement are motivated by jobs that are challenging and over which they have some control, whereas employees who have minimal achievement needs are more satisfied when jobs involve little challenge and have a high probability of success

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106
Q

Need for Affiliation

A

Employees who have a strong need for affiliation are motivated by jobs in which they can work with and help other people

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107
Q

Need for Power

A

Employees who have strong need for power are motivated by a desire to influence others rather than simply to be successful

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108
Q

What are other Humanistic/Motivational Theories?

A
  1. Job Expectations Theory
  2. Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Theory/Model
  3. Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
  4. Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory
  5. Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
  6. David McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory
  7. Four-Drive Theory
  8. Self-Regulation Theory
  9. Reinforcement Theory
  10. Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory
  11. J. Stacey’s Adam’s Equity Theory
  12. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
  13. Organization Justice Theory
  14. MARS Model of Individual Behavior and Performance
  15. Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of Personality
  16. IMPACT Theory
  17. Path-Goal Theory
  18. Situational Leadership Theory
  19. Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory)
  20. Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory
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109
Q

Job Expectations Theory

A

a discrepancy between what an employee expected a job to be like and the reality of the job can affect motivation and satisfaction

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110
Q

What might happen when an employee’s job expectations are not met?

A

When expectations from the job was not met, the employee might feel unmotivated

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111
Q

What is important to be done according to the Job Expectations Theory?

A

Realistic Job Preview is really important

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112
Q

Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Theory/Model

A

employees desire jobs that are meaningful, provide them opportunity to be personally responsible for the outcome of their work, and provide them with feedback of the results of their efforts

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113
Q

How can employees be motivated according to the Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Theory/Model?

A

Jobs will have motivation potential if they allow employees to use a variety of skills and to connect their efforts to an outcome which has meaning, is useful, or is appreciated by coworkers as well as by others in society

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114
Q

Job Diagnostic Survey

A

The Job Diagnostic Survey Questionnaire (JDS) intends to diagnose existing jobs to determine if and how these might be redesigned to improve employee’s motivation, satisfaction, and productivity; and evaluate the effects.

115
Q

Job Enrichment

A

redesigning jobs to give workers greater responsibility in the planning, execution, and evaluation of their work, raises the level of responsibility

116
Q

What are the Core Job Characteristics according to the Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Theory/Model?

A
  1. Skill Variety
  2. Task Identity
  3. Task Significance
  4. Autonomy
  5. Feedback
117
Q

Skill Variety

A

use of different skills and talents to complete a variety of work activities

118
Q

Task Identity

A

the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work

119
Q

Task Significance

A

the degree to which the job affects the organization and/or larger society

120
Q

Autonomy

A

provide freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used to complete the work

121
Q

Feedback

A

employees can tell how well they are doing from direct sensory information from the job itself

122
Q

Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

A

+ employees would be motivated by and satisfied with their jobs at any given point in time if certain needs were met
+ This model condenses a long list of previously studied drives into five basic categories (primary needs)
+ Proposed that human beings are motivated by several primary needs (drives) at the same time, but the strongest source of motivation is the lowest unsatisfied need
+ As the person satisfies a lower-level need, the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes the next strongest motivator and remains so even if never satisfied

123
Q

What does Abraham Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy believe about motivation?

A

Motivation can be shaped by human thoughts

124
Q

What are the parts of Abraham Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy (from bottom to top)?

A
  1. Physiological Needs
  2. Safety Needs
  3. Belongingness/Safety Needs
  4. Ego Needs
  5. Self-Actualization
125
Q

Physiological Needs

A

food, air, water, shelter

126
Q

Safety Needs

Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

A

physical, psychological, and financial needs

127
Q

Belongingness/Safety Needs

A

interaction with others

128
Q

Ego Needs

A

recognition and success

129
Q

Self-Actualization

A

highest potential

130
Q

Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory

A

+ states that individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of need at the same time, and that the level which is most important to them can change over time
+ individual’s priorities and motivations may be fluid and can move between existence, relatedness, and growth

131
Q

What are the parts of the ERG theory of motivation (from bottom to top)?

A
  1. Existence
  2. Relatedness
  3. Growth
132
Q

What is the counterpart of the ERG Theory’s Existence to Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

A
  1. Physiological
  2. Safety
133
Q

What is the counterpart of the ERG Theory’s Relatedness to Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

A
  1. Social
  2. Self-Esteem
134
Q

What is the counterpart of the ERG Theory’s Growth to Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

A
  1. Self-Esteem
  2. Self-Actualization
135
Q

Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

A

some factors seemed to cause job satisfaction and dissatisfaction

136
Q

What are the two factors under Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory?

A
  1. Motivators
  2. Hygiene
137
Q

Motivators

A

related to the work itself, the type of work, level of responsibility, and the chances for recognition, advancement, and personal achievement

138
Q

Hygiene

A

related to the context in which people perform the job, e.g., benefits, working conditions, type of supervision, salary, company policies

139
Q

How can a company eliminate job dissatisfaction according to Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory?

A

Eliminate job dissatisfaction by providing basic hygiene factors (compensated properly, treated well, and provided with job security)

140
Q

David McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

A

three needs are central to work motivation: needs for achievement, power, and affiliation

141
Q

Four-Drive Theory

A

emotions are the source of human motivation and that these emotions are generated through four innate and universal drives

142
Q

What are the four drives under the Four-Drive Theory?

A
  1. Drive to acquire
  2. Drive to bond
  3. Drive to comprehend
  4. Drive to defend
143
Q

Drive to acquire

A

seek out, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences

144
Q

Drive to bond

A

variation of the need for belonging and affiliation, motivates the people to cooperate and, essentially, for organizations and societies

145
Q

Drive to comprehend

A

need to know, discover answers to unknown

146
Q

Drive to defend

A

protect ourselves physically, psychologically, and socially

147
Q

Self-Regulation Theory

A

employee monitor their own progress toward attaining goals and then make the necessary adjustments: that is to self regulate

148
Q

Reinforcement Theory

A

draws principles of operant conditioning and states simply that behavior is motivated by consequences

149
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

employees will engage in behaviors for which they are rewarded and avoid behaviors for which they are punished

150
Q

Factors the must be considered in determining the effectiveness of incentive programs

A
  1. Timing of incentive
  2. Contingency of the consequences
  3. Type of incentive used
  4. Use of individual-based versus group-based incentive
  5. Use of positive incentives versus negative incentives
  6. Fairness of the reward system
151
Q

Timing of incentive

A

reinforcer or punisher is most effective if it occurs soon after the performance of the behavior

152
Q

Contingency of the consequences

A

+ if it is not possible to immediately reward or punish a behavior, it should at least be clear that the employee understands the behaviors that brought reward or punishment
+ reward and punishment must be made contingent upon performance, and this contingency of consequence must be clear to employees if we want them to be motivated

153
Q

Type of incentive used

A

supervisors should have access to and be trained to administer different types of reinforcers

154
Q

Premack Principle

A

reinforcement is relative and that a supervisor can reinforce an employee with something that on the surface does not appear to be a reinforcer

155
Q

What are the different types of incentives?

A
  1. Premack Principle
  2. Financial Rewards
  3. Recognition
  4. Social Recognition
  5. Travel
156
Q

Financial Rewards

A

can be used to motivate better worker performance either by making variable pay an integral part of an employee’s compensation package or by using financial rewards as a bonus for accomplishing certain goals

157
Q

Recognition

A

reward through recognition program

158
Q

Social Recognition

A

consists or personal attention, signs of approval, and expressions of appreciations; informal recognitions

159
Q

Travel

A

offer travel rewards rather than financial rewards

160
Q

Individual Incentive Plans

A

designed to make high levels of individual performance financially worthwhile and the research is clear monetary incentive increase performance over the use of a guaranteed hourly salary

161
Q

What are the types of individual incentive plans?

A
  1. Pay For Performance
  2. Merit Pay
162
Q

Pay For Performance

A

also called as earnings-at-risk (EAR) plans, pay employees according to how much they individually produced

163
Q

Merit Pay

A

base their incentives on performance appraisal scores rather than on such objective performance measures as sales and productivity

164
Q

Group Incentive Plans

A

get employees participate in the success or failure of the organization

165
Q

What are the different types of group incentive plans?

A
  1. Profit Sharing
  2. Gainsharing
  3. Stock Options
166
Q

Profit Sharing

A

provide employee with percentage of profits above a certain amount

167
Q

Gainsharing

A

ties groupwide financial incentives to improvements in organizational performance

168
Q

Stock Options

A

employees are given the opportunity to purchase stock in the future

169
Q

Use of positive incentives versus negative incentives

A

+ instead of rewarding employees, punish those who did wrong
+ for punishment to be effective, the employee must understand why he is being punished and be shown alternative ways of behaving that will result in some type of desired reinforcement

170
Q

Reinforcement

A

increases behavior

171
Q

What are the two types of reinforcement?

A
  1. Positive
  2. Negative
172
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

addition of something to increase behavior

173
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

removing something to increase behavior

174
Q

Punishment

A

decreases behavior

175
Q

What are the 4 types of schedules for reinforcement?

A
  1. Fixed Interval
  2. Fixed Ratio
  3. Variable Interval
  4. Variable Ratio
176
Q

Ratio

A

Responses

177
Q

Interval

A

Time

178
Q

Organizational Behavior Modification

Reward System

A

certain target behaviors are specified, measured, and rewarded

179
Q

Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory

A

+ emphasized the role of specific, challenging performance goals and worker’s commitment to those goals as key determinants of motivation
+ Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Time-Bound

180
Q

Can difficult goals result in motivation (according to Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory)?

A

Difficult or challenging goals will also result in greater levels of motivation, if the goals have been accepted by the workers

181
Q

J. Stacey Adam’s Equity Theory

A

+ based on the premise that our levels of motivation and job satisfaction are related to how fairly we believe we are treated in comparison with others
+ Employees subconsciously list all their outputs and inputs and then compute an input/output ratio by dividing the output value by input value
+ When an employee’s ratio is lower than those of others, he will become dissatisfied and be motivated to make the ratios equal in one or more ways

182
Q

Inputs

A

those elements that we put into our jobs

183
Q

Outputs

A

elements we receive from our jobs

184
Q

When does motivation decrease (according to J. Stacey Adam’s Equity Theory)?

A

Our motivation decreases when our input/output ratios are lower than others

185
Q

Components of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory

A
  1. Valence
  2. Instrumentality
  3. Expectancy
186
Q

Valence

A

+ desirability of a particular outcome to an individual
+ extent to which an employee value a particular consequence
+ “gusto ko yumaman”
+ gaano mo ka-gusto yung outcome

187
Q

Instrumentality

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

A

+ relationship between the performance of a particular behavior and the likelihood that a certain outcome will result
+ link between one outcome and another outcome
+ outcome of a worker’s performance, if noticed, results in a particular consequence
+ the extent to which the performance will result to the desired outcome
+ “kapag ba ito yung ginawa ko, yayaman ako?”

188
Q

Expectancy

A

+ perceived relationship between the amount of effort an employee puts in and the resulting outcome
+ the extent to which the effort an employee exerted resulted to the outcome she wanted
+ “nag-aral ako ng mabuti, nag-trabaho ako ng maayos kaya eto mayaman na ako”

189
Q

Organization Justice Theory

A

if employees are treated fairly, they will be more satisfied and motivated

190
Q

What is the organization justice theory focused on?

A

Focused on fairness of many aspects such as the process of decision making, outcome of decisions, and how it is communicated to employees

191
Q

Distributive Justice

A

fairness of the decision itself

192
Q

Procedural Justice

A

fairness of the procedures used to arrive with the decision

193
Q

MARS Model of Individual Behavior and
Performance

A

+ Performance is predicted by the Motivation, Ability, Role Perception, and Situational Factors
+ All 4 factors are critical influences on an individual’s voluntary behavior and performance, if one is low in a given situation then, the employee will perform poorly
+ Motivation, ability and role perception is clustered together as they are located within the person

194
Q

Motivation

A

represents the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior

195
Q

What are the concepts of motivation according to the MARS Model of Individual Behavior and Performance?

A
  1. Direction
  2. [Motivation is] Goal-oriented
  3. Intensity
  4. Persistence
196
Q

Direction

MARS Model of Individual Behavior and Performance

A

path along which people steer their effort

197
Q

Intensity

A

amount of effort allocated to the goal

198
Q

Persistence

A

refers to the length of time that the individual continues to exert effort toward an objective

199
Q

Ability

A

includes both the natural aptitudes and the learned capabilities

200
Q

Role Perceptions

A

how clearly people understand their job duties

201
Q

Situational Factors

A

any context beyond the employee’s immediate control

202
Q

Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of Personality

A

the most researched and respected clustering of personality traits

203
Q

What are the five factors of personality?

A
  1. Openness to Experience
  2. Conscientiousness
  3. Extraversion
  4. Agreeableness
  5. Neuroticism
204
Q

Openness to Experience

A

imaginative, creative, unconventional, curious, nonconforming, autonomous, and aesthetically perceptive

205
Q

Conscientiousness

Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of Personality

A

organized, dependable, goal- focused, thorough, disciplined, methodical, and industrious

206
Q

Extraversion

Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of Personality

A

outgoing, talkative, energetic, sociable and assertive

207
Q

Agreeableness

A

trusting, helpful, good-natured, considerate, tolerate, selfless, generous, and flexible

208
Q

Neuroticism

Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of Personality

A

people who tend to be anxious, insecure, self-conscious, depressed, and temperamental

209
Q

What stands out as the best predictor of proficient task performance?

Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of Personality

A

Conscientiousness stands out as the best overall predictor of proficient task performance for most job, followed by Extraversion

210
Q

IMPACT Theory

A

each leader has one of six behavior styles: informational, magnetic, position, affiliation, coercive, or tactical

211
Q

What are the factors of the IMPACT Theory?

A
  1. Informational (Ignorance)
  2. Magnetic (Despair)
  3. Position (Instability)
  4. Affiliation (Anxiety)
  5. Coercive (Crisis)
  6. Tactical (Disorganization)
212
Q

Informational (Ignorance)

A

provides info in a climate of ignorance, where important information is missing from the group

213
Q

Magnetic (Despair)

A

leads through energy and optimism but characterized by low morale

214
Q

Position (Instability)

IMPACT Theory | leadership style

A

leads through energy and optimism but characterized by low morale

215
Q

Affiliation (Anxiety)

A

this style of leadership is effective in the climate of instability, where you have resources yet you have no goal to pursue or unclear what to do next, there requires a position type leader similar to position power leader

216
Q

Coercive (Crisis)

A

leads by controlling and punishment

217
Q

Tactical (Disorganization)

A

leads through strategy

218
Q

Path-Goal Theory

A

a leader can adopt one of four behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation

219
Q

What are the four behavioral leadership styles under path-goal theory?

A
  1. Instrumental
  2. Supportive
  3. Participative
  4. Achievement-Oriented
220
Q

Instrumental Leadership

A

calls for planning, organizing, and controlling the activities of employees

221
Q

Supportive Leadership

A

shows concern for employees

222
Q

Participative Leadership

A

shares information with employees and lets them participate in the decision making

223
Q

Achievement-Oriented Leadership

A

challenging goals and rewards increases in performance

224
Q

Situational Leadership Theory

A

a leader typically uses one of the 4 behavioral styles:

  1. Delegating
  2. Directing
  3. Coaching
  4. Supporting
225
Q

Delegating Leadership

A

willing and able

226
Q

Directing Leadership

A

unwilling and unable

227
Q

Coaching Leadership

A

willing but unable

228
Q

Supporting Leadership

A

unwilling but able

229
Q

Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory)

A

+ concentrates on the interactions between leader and subordinates
+ Leaders develop different roles and relationships with other people under them and thus act differently with different subordinates

230
Q

Types of Leader-Member Relationships under the Leader-Member Exchange Theory

A
  1. In-Group
  2. Out-Group
231
Q

In-Group

A

HQ relationship with the leader, developed trusting and friendly relationship

232
Q

Out-Group

A

LQ relationship with the leader, developed

233
Q

Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory

A

+ defined as the person’s ability to make choices and manage their own life
+ You feel in greater control, as opposed to being non-self-determined, which can leave you feeling that your life is controlled by others
+ People are motivated to grow and change by three innate psychological needs
+ The tendency to be either proactive or passive is largely influenced by the social condition which we are raised
+ Intrinsic motivation plays an important role

234
Q

What are the three innate psychological needs for motivation according to Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory

A
  1. Autonomy
  2. Competence
  3. Connection or Relatedness
235
Q

Autonomy (Self-Determination Theory)

A

people need to feel in control of their own behaviors and goals

236
Q

Competence (Self-Determination Theory)

A

people need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills

237
Q

Connection or Relatedness (Self-Determination Theory)

A

people need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to people

238
Q

Modern Organization Theory

A

+ based on the concept that the organization is a system which has to adapt to changes in its environment
+ organization is defined as a designed and structured process in which individuals interact for objectives

239
Q

Systems Approach

A

+ considers organization as systems – a system is an organized or complex whole
+ an assemblage or combination of things or parts which form a complex unitary whole
+ offer an open-system view of an organization and recognizes its environmental interface
+ adopts multi-level and multi-dimensional approach, which considers both macro and micro aspects
+ focuses on the internal dynamics of an
organization’s structure and behavior
+ applicable to all situations

240
Q

Subsystems

A

different parts of the system, which are interrelated

240
Q

What are the types of systems in the Systems Approach?

A
  1. Subsystems
  2. Open
  3. Closed
241
Q

Open

A

interact with the environment

242
Q

Closed

A

no interaction with the environment

243
Q

What are the 3 basic elements (according to the Systems Approach Theory)?

A
  1. Components
  2. Linking Process
  3. Goals of Organization
244
Q

Components

Systems Approach

A

individual, formal and informal structure in an organization, physical environment

245
Q

Linking Process

Systems Approach

A

communication, balance, decision analysis

246
Q

Goals of Organization

Systems Approach

A

growth, stability, interaction

247
Q

Socio-Technical Approach

Modern Organization Theory

A

+ based on the premise that every organization consists of the people, the technical system, and the environment
+ people use tools, techniques, and knowledge to produce goods or services valued by consumers or users
+ equilibrium among the social system, technical system, and the environment is necessary to make the org more effective

248
Q

Joint Optimization

Socio-Technical Approach

A

the idea that the social and technological systems should be designed to fit one another as well as possible

249
Q

Unit Control of Variance

Socio-Technical Approach

A

concerns who handles work problems when they arise

250
Q

What does the socio-technical approach enhance?

A

enhances the motivation, self-efficacy, and skills of the employee, and it saves the time of the specialist and supervisor

251
Q

Why is the socio-technical approach very useful?

A

very useful because of the trend of downsizing in favor of advanced equipment/machinery/gadgets

252
Q

What does socio-technical approach reduce?

A

reduces lag time associated with topo many moving parts

253
Q

Contingency or Situational Approach

Modern Organization Theory

A

+ based on the belief that there cannot be universal guidelines suitable for all situations, thus, different environment requires different organizational relationships for optimum effectiveness, taking into consideration various social, legal, political, technical, and economic factors
+ Herbert Simon
+ Decision Theory
+ works on the prescription which says that “it all depends”

254
Q

What does the Contingency or Situational Approach focus on?

A

focuses on external determinants of the organization’s behavior and structure

255
Q

Open System Theory

A

+ by Katz & Kahn
+ organization develop and change over time as a result of both external and internal forces
+ must interact with the environment in order to survive
+ the interplay between internal reality of an organization and the external reality of its environment and history
+ organization must be open to its environment to be effective
+ organizations thrive only as long as there is a continuous flow of energy from the external environment into the system and continuous export of products out of the system
+ too much Negative Entropy
+ they anticipate events occurring in the world that may impact their activities and outcomes

256
Q

3 Key Elements of Open System Theory

A
  1. Inputs
  2. Throughputs
  3. Outputs/Feedback
257
Q

Inputs

Open Systems Theory

A

raw materials, human resources, energy, machinery

258
Q

Throughputs

A

production processes, service, training

259
Q

Outputs/Feedback

Open Systems Theory

A

products, services, knowledge

260
Q

Negative Entropy

Open Systems Theory

A

all forms of organization move towards disorganization or death, so orgs must avoid this movement

261
Q

What does the negative feedback provide?

A

The negative feedback loop provides information about where and how the organization is getting off-course; therefore, they could correct or adjust the course

262
Q

Equifinality

Open Systems Theory

A

a system can reach the same end state in different ways (there isn’t just one way to achieve a particular outcome)

263
Q

What are surviving open systems characterized by?

A

Surviving open systems are characterized by a balance in energy exchange

264
Q

Where does open systems move toward?

A

Open systems move toward more specialized functions

265
Q

What is open systems doing to the organization?

A

Bringing the system together as a unified process is necessary for the system to continue

266
Q

According to open systems, what are the most effective organizations?

A

The most effective organizations are those that are able to adapt to their environment

267
Q

Static Environments

A

relatively stable or predictable

268
Q

Dynamic Environment

A

constant state of fluidity or fluctuations

269
Q

Contingency Theory

A

+ The “it depends” theory
+ Behavior must be selected to fit the particular circumstance
+ This answers the problem of both classical and neoclassical theories

270
Q

What are the different contingency theories?

A
  1. Joan Woodward’s Contingency Model
  2. Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model
  3. Fiedler’s Contingency Model
  4. Mintzberg’s Contingency Model
271
Q

Joan Woodward’s Contingency Model

A

for maximal performance, org structure needed to match the type of production technology
+ producers of small batches of specialty products required a span of control that was moderate in size and a short chain of command
+ Mass Production, large span of control and long chain of command
+ Continuous process, largest span of control

272
Q

What are the three types of manufacturers according to Joan Woodward’s Contingency Model?

A
  1. Small-batch
  2. Mass production
  3. Continuous production
273
Q

What does the Joan Woodward’s Contingency Model deal with?

A

Deals only with manufacturing organizations

274
Q

Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model

A

+ asserted that two processes determine the company’s ability to keep up with external changes: differentiation and integration
+ Depends on the environment of the company

275
Q

What does Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model propose?

A

proposed that the stability of the environment dictates the most effective form of organization

276
Q

Mechanistic Organization (Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model)

A

an organization that depends on formal rules and regulations, makes decisions at higher levels of the organization and has smaller spans of control (for stable environments)

277
Q

Organic Organization (Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model)

A

organization with a large span of control, less formalized procedures, and decision making at middle levels (for unstable environments)

278
Q

Differentiation (Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model)

A

complexity of the org structure – number of units, various orientations and philosophies of the managers, and the goals and interests of the organization’s members

279
Q

Integration (Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model)

A

amount and quality of collaboration

280
Q

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

A

any individual’s leadership style is effective only in certain situations

281
Q

Mintzberg’s Contingency Model

A

+ argued that one could describe an organization by looking at several categories of characteristics
+ the key mechanism used by the organization for coordinating its efforts
+ functions and roles of people in the organization
+ the context in which the organization operates
+ the priority level depends on the goals

282
Q

Basic Forms of Coordination

A
  1. Mutual Adjustments based on Informal Comms
  2. Direct Supervision
  3. Standardization of Work Process
  4. Standardization of KSAOs
  5. Standardization of Outputs
  6. Standardization of norms (Culture)

TOS I/O Psych (16 decks)

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