Midterm Study Flashcards
Introspection
“Looking inward,” self-reflecting and reporting on immediate sensations and feelings. Used in structuralist theory to explore structural elements of the human mind. Associated with Edward Bradford Titchener.
Psychology’s Current Perspectives (7)
Neuroscience, Evolutionary, Behavior genetics, Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Cognitive, Social-cultural
Neuroscience (perspective)
How the body and brain enable emotions, memories and sensory experiences
Evolutionary (perspective)
How the natural selection of traits promoted the survival of genes
Behavior genetics (perspective)
How much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences
Psychodynamic (perspective)
How behavior springs from unconscious drivers and conflicts
Behavioral (perspective)
How we learn observable responses
Cognitive (perspective)
How we encode, process, store and retrieve information
Social-cultural (perspective)
How behavior and thinking carry across situations and cultures
Correlation
A measure of the extend to which two factors vary together, and thus of who well either factor predicts the other
Positive correlation: Both factors go in the same direction (Oreo sales go up, sugar intake of the average American goes up as well)
Negative correlation: Factors go in opposite directions (increased study rates, decrease in failing grades)
Correlation coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two things from -1 to +1
What is the most important thing to remember about correlational studies?
Correlation is not causation!!!
Illusory correlation
A perceived but nonexistence correlation; when we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief
Ex. The presumption that infertile couples who adopt become more likely to conceive; we’re less likely to notice those who adopt and never conceive
Independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution
Median
Middle score in a distribution
Mode
The most frequently occurring score/s in a distribution
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard deviation
A computed measurement of how much scores vary around the mean score
Neuron
A neuron cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Sensory neuron
Neurons that cary incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Motor neuron
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Resting potential
When there’s a positive charge outside of the neuron and a negative charge inside of a neuron
Depolarize
When there is an influx of Na+ ions into the neuron upon the firing of a neuron, temporarily changing charges
Refractory period
Period during which Na+ ions are pumped back outside of the neuron, returning to its resting state
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a nuclear impulse
Synapse
Junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
Synaptic gap
Tiny gap at the synapse, between two neurons
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; travel across synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, influencing whether that neuron generates a neural impulse
Summarize the process of neurotransmission.
1) Electrical impulses (action potentials) travel down a neuron’s axon until reaching the synapse
2) When an action potential reaches an axon terminal, neurotransmitter molecules are released. These molecules cross the synaptic gap to bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron. This allows electrically charged atoms to enter the receiving neuron and excite or inhibit a new action potential.
3) The sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitter molecules (re-uptake).
Re-uptake
A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
Central Nervous System
The brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
Somatic Nervous System
The division of the PNS that controls the body’s skeletal muscles, AKA skeletal nervous system
Autonomic Nervous System
The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of internal organs, includes the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic Nervous System
Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy
Endocrine System
The body’s “flow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through bloodstream and affect tissues
Adrenal glands
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
Pituitary glands
The endocrine system’s most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Electroencephalogram
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
PET
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. AKA magnetic resonance imaging.
fMRI
AKA functional MRI. A technique for revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.
Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automative survival functions
Medulla
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Reticular formation
A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Thalamus
The brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Cerebellum
The “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
The Limbic System
Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Amygdala
Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward
Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemisphere; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center
Glial cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons
Frontal lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Parietal lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
Occipital lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from visual fields
Temporal lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the eats; includes the auditory areas, such receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Motor cortex
An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Sensory cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Association areas
Areas of the brain that integrate information, uncommitted to sensory or muscular activity, links sensory inputs with stored memories
Corpus collosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemipheres and carrying messages between them
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, sufferers lapse directly into REM sleep at inopportune times. Caused by the absence of a hypothalamic neural center that produces orexin, a neurotransmitter linked to alertness.
Sleep Apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. Warning signs include snoring at night, feeling tired during the day, and high blood pressure.
Night Terrors
A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; distinct from nightmares. Usually affect children during Stage 3 of sleep.
Barbiturates
Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system reducing anxiety and impairing memory and judgment. Commonly used for inducing sleep and reducing anxiety. Large doses may cause impaired memory and judgment.
Opiates
Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. May cause depression of neural functioning. When consumed, opiates prevent the brain’s production of endorphins.
Stimulants
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Used to stay awake, lose weight, and boost mood or athletic performance.
Ex. amphetamines, methamphetamine, caffeine, ecstasy
Hallucinogens (psychedelics)
Drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
Ex. LSD, marijuana, ecstasy
Depressants
Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Ex. alcohol
Hypnosis
lol idk look it up
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
- Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
- Initiative vs. Guilt
- Industry vs. Inferiority
- Identity vs. Role Confusion
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Generativity vs. Self-Absorption
- Integrity vs. Despair
Trust vs. Mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust.
Age: Infancy (1 year)
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.
Age: Toddlerhood (1-3 years)
Initiative vs. Guilt
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent.
Age: Preschool (3-6 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior.
Age: Elementary school (6 years to puberty)
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles then integrating them into an identity, or they experience confusion about themselves.
Age: Adolescence (teens to 20s)
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel isolated.
Age: Young adulthood (20s to early 40s)
Generativity vs. Self-Absorption
In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Age: Middle adulthood (40s to 60s)
Integrity vs. Despair
Reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.
Age: Late adulthood
Parenting Styles
- Authoritarian
- Permissive
- Authoritative
Authoritarian Parenting Style
Parents impose rules and expect obedience.
Ex. “Why?” “Because I said so.”
Permissive Parenting Style
Parents submit to their children’s desires, making few demands and little punishment
Authoritative Parenting Style
Parents are both demanding and responsive, setting and enforcing rules while explaining them and encouraging open discussion about them.
Attachment
Emotional tie with another person; young children seek closeness to their caregiver and show distress upon separation
Summarize Harry Harlow’s study of attachment on monkeys.
Monkeys were raised with two artificial “mothers,” one a bare wire cylinder with a bottle, the other wrapped in cloth with no bottle. Despite a lack of food source, the clothed “mother” was preferred over the wired one. This disproved the idea that infants developed attachment to those who satisfied their need for nourishment.
Describe Mary Ainsworth’s types of attachment.
Secure attachment: When placed in a strange situation, infants are likely to play comfortably and explore surroundings. Distress comes when she leaves; they cling to her upon return.
Insecure attachment: When in a strange situation and in their mother’s presence, they are less likely to explore and may cling to their mother. They are upset or indifferent when she leaves and returns.
Explain two different effects on a child if they are deprived of attachment.
Children become withdrawn, frightened or even speechless. As they grow, they can likely become neglectful or aggressive.
Gestalt
An organized whole. Emphasis on our tendency to integrate pieces of information into one coherent piece of information.
What is the fundamental truth underlying all of the Gestalt principles?
Our brain does more than register information about the world. We organize information to make sense of it.
Place Theory
In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
Frequency Theory
In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. Our eyes are sensitive to red, green and blue. Colorblindness is due to a lack of functioning red- or green-sensitive cones or both.
Opponent-Process Theory
Hering. The theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision. We see colors in sets: red-green, yellow-blue, black-white. Explains afterimages.
Figure-ground
The organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand our from their surroundings (the ground)
Grouping
The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
Proximity
We group nearly objects together.
Continuity
We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
Closure
We fill in gaps to complete a whole object.
Depth Perception
The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
Latent Learning
A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.
Edward Toleman’s Experiment
He put rats into a maze. Different groups were rewarded or not for finishing the maze. Those who were rewarded demonstrated a faster learning rate. Those who were not still demonstrated latent learning.
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning is the association of two stimuli (beep on pager and arrival of food) while operant conditioning is the association of behaviors and their consequences (doing homework and receiving a good grade).
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which one learned to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. Associated with Ivan Pavlov.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Associated with B.F. Skinner.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Reinforces a response after a fixed number of times
Ex. Coffee shop rewarding you with a free drink after every five you buy
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Ex. Players of slow machines continuing to play even without reward
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Ex. Getting paid for a job done by the hour
Variable-Interval Schedule
Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Ex. Seeing the “You’ve got mail!” message pop up on your screen after persistently checking your email
Proactive Interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
Ex. Knowing a friend’s old college email address makes it harder to remember their new email address.
Retroactive Interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Ex. Learning a new password for a bank debit card makes it harder to remember the password for an ATM card that had been used for a long time.
Recency Effect
The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes last in a sequence.
Primacy Effect
The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first in a sequence.
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
