Memory (Modules 26-30) Flashcards
Memory
Learning that has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved
There are three steps of memory (according to information-processing models).
- Encoding: Get information into our brain.
- Storage: Retain information.
- Retrieval: Get information back out.
Parallel processing
The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; brain’s natural mode of information processing
What happens to the neurons in your brain every time you learn something new?
The neural connections chance, forming and strengthening pathways that allow you to learn and interact with the environment
Forming memories is another three-step process.
- Sensory Memory: First record of to-be-remembered information; fleeting
- Short-term memory: Processed from sensory memory; encoding through rehearsal
- Long-term memory: Moved from short-term memory to here after enough rehearsal
Sensory Memory
First record of to-be-remembered information; fleeting
Short-term memory
Processed from sensory memory; encoding through rehearsal
Long-term memory
Moved from short-term memory to here after enough rehearsal
Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable united; often occurs automatically
Ex. words (KLCISNE vs NICKELS)
Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Ex. Peg-word system (“one is a bun; two is a shoe; three is a tree…”)
Hierarchies
Systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific
Spacing effect
We retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over time
Testing effect
Repeated quizzing of preciously studied material
Shallow processing
Visual and acoustic encoding; the encoding of picture images and sound
Ex. Is the following word in capital letters? BRAIN
Does the previously mentioned word rhyme with train? Yes.
Deep processing
Semantic encoding; the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
Ex. Would the word “shoe” fit in this sentence?
The girl put the ___ on the table.
Which is better for your memory over time – shallow or deep?
Deep
Iconic memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Ex. Sperling’s Experiment: When shown a group of letters, people could recall rows if asked to recall rows, but only half of all the letters if asked to recall all of the letters
Echoic memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3-4 seconds
Ex. When you’re in a conversation and your focus briefly shifts from the person to the TV
How many things can short-term memory hold?
7 + or - 2
What is the capacity for long term memory?
Infinite
What part of the brain lays down new explicit memories (names or events)?
Hippocampus
What happens to memories while you are sleeping?
Memories are filed and processed for later retrieval. Greater hippocampus activity during sleep = better memory.
What kinds of memories does the cerebellum form?
Implicit Memories
What kinds of memories does the basal ganglia form?
Explicit Memories
Flashbulb memories
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or events
Ex. Hearing about the 9/11 attack
What part of the brain is involved in emotional memories, like flashbulb memories?
Amygdala
Explicit memory
AKA declarative memory. Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” Encoded through effortful processing.
Effortful processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Implicit memory
AKA non-declarative memory. Retention independent of conscious recollection; learning how to do something. Encoded through automatic processing.
Automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
Examples of things you automatically process (3)
1) Space - recognizing the place on a page where certain material appears when studying
2) Time - noting the sequence of the day’s events
3) Frequency - how many times things happen (ex. “This is the third time I’ve run into her today.”)
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
An increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Three Measures of Retention
1) Recall - the ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness; measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as in a fill-in-the-blank test
2) Recognition - a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test
3) Relearning - a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Recall
The ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness; measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as in a fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition
A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test
Relearning
A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
What is the point to remember about Ebbinghaus’ learning experiments?
It’s easier to remember material after reviewing material over time.
Retrieval cues are things that can make it easier to remember something. Give two examples of retrieval cues.
1) Mnemonic devices - memory aids that use vivid images or organizational devices
2) Associations formed at the time a memory is encoded (tastes, smells, sights)
Priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Deja vu
“I’ve experienced this before.” French for already seen. Cues from a current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
Mood congruent
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
What are the possible reasons we could forget something because of an encoding failure?
Absent mindedness or inattention to detail
What did Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve prove about how much time it takes to forget something?
Forgetting novel information easily is common, but over time, retention levels off after its initial drop.
When you have retrieval failures, what is one way you could help yourself remember the information?
Review, repeat and rehearse the material you are trying to learn.
Proactive Interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
Ex. Knowing a friend’s old college email address makes it harder to remember their new email address.
Retroactive Interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Ex. Learning a new password for a bank debit card makes it harder to remember the password for an ATM card that had been used for a long time.
Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories
Famous psychology associated with repression
Sigmund Freud
Misinformation effect
Incorporation misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Psychology associated with the misinformation effect
Elizabet Loctus
Source Amnesia
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about or imagined; at the heart of many false memories (AKA source misattribution)
Is it easy to tell real memories from false ones?
No, because memory heavily relies on reconstruction as well as reproduction, thus unreal memories feel like real memories.
Suggestions to help you improve your memory while studying
- Make up and use mnemonics.
- Study material multiple times, using spaced practice.
- Give meaning to the material; make connections.
- Re-create the mood and situation in which your original learning occurred.
- Minimize interference. Sleep after studying.
- Sleep more.
- Quiz yourself on material often.
