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HS233 Social Sciences Research > Midterm Review > Flashcards

Midterm Review Flashcards

1
Q

Issues Connected to Ethics

A
  • No coercion
  • No persuasion (e.g., figure of authority)
  • Voluntary participation.
  • Protection of vulnerable groups
  • Research should not add to risk
  • Participants can skip sections in the questionnaire’s/surveys, refuse to answer certain questions during interviews
  • Benefits should be provided in any case
  • Treating people fairly and with respect
  • Discourage people from withdrawing if they decide not to do so
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2
Q

Ethics Review Board

A

Usually, universities have two level Ethics Review Boards:
1) Full Research Ethics Board
Reviews greater than minimal risk research, committee of faculty members, REB, community, and other members
2) Delegated REV Review
Minimal risk review, individual will review (REB officers)

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3
Q

Main Principles in Ethics

A

Protect Participants from Harm
○ Research with human participants requires Ethics approval.
○ Shared responsibility - researcher, institutions, ethics review boards.
○ Balance between potential harm and benefits of research.

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4
Q

Tri-Council Policy Statement

A 
1) Concern for Human Welfare
• Means seeking concrete ways to promote the physical and mental wellbeing of participants and protect them from harm
2) Justice
• Treat people fairly and equitably
3) Respect for Persons
• Intrinsic value of a human being
• Incorporates dual moral obligation to respect autonomy and protect those who have limited autonomy (vulnerable groups, disabilities, PTSD)
• People should choose freely
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5
Q

Hypothesis

A
  • Has at least 2 variables
  • Expresses relationships between variables
  • Expressed as prediction or expected future outcome
  • Logically linked to research question and theory
  • Possible to test it to see if it is false or true
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6
Q

Alternative Hypothesis

A

States that independent variable has an effect of dependent.

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7
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

No relationship or no effect between variables.

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8
Q

Hypothesis Testing

A

• Conceptual Hypothesis
Seeks for causal relationships between two abstract theories.
• Empirical Hypothesis
Association between the measured indicators.

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9
Q

Abstract Conceptual Hypothesis

A

Conceptual Hypothesis
Seeks for causal relationships between two abstract theories.

Independent Variable
• Social networks: defined as the size of formal and informal networks
• Operationalized: by asking refugees about the extend of familial social networks

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10
Q

Empirical Hypothesis

A

Empirical Hypothesis - Association between the measured indicators.

Dependant Variable
• Quality of Job: defined how desirable this job was/is
• Operationalized: by creating an index of:
Job quality; status; FT & PT; education qualification matched with the job

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11
Q

Sampling

A

The process of selecting observations in research.

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12
Q

Probability Sampling

A

Random Selection
• Improve representation of its population
• All members of population have equal chance of being selected in the sample.
• Makes sample as close as possible to the general population.

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13
Q

Probability Sampling Techniques - Simple Random Sampling

A

Simple Random Sampling
• Researcher assigns a single number to each element in the sampling frame without skipping any number in the process.
• A table of random numbers is then used to select elements for the sample.
Rarely used in practice. Major limitations:
• Entire list of the population should be accessible to the researcher and this is usually not the case
• Could be quite extensive and expensive (especially for big population and face to face interview)
• Small random sample may not be representative of the population of the specific ethnic groups.

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14
Q

Probability Sampling Techniques - Systematic Random Sampling

A

Systematic Random Sampling
• Requires a list of certain type of population to be researched
• Systematically takes every 10th, 20th, 30th, element into the sample
Weakness
• The periodicity of people in the list could be done in such a way that sampling will represent only specific gender, race and age and etc.

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15
Q

Probability Sampling Techniques - Stratified Sampling

A

Stratified Sampling
• Method for obtaining a greater degree of representativeness
• It is necessary to divide the population into different subgroups or strata, and then randomly selects the final subjects proportionally from the different starta
• Stratification is the process of grouping the members of a population into relatively homogeneous strata before sampling (could be age, race, socioeconomic status, gender and etc).

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16
Q

Probability Sampling Techniques - Cluster Sampling

A

Cluster Sampling
• One of the most efficient ways of sampling. It may be used when it is not possible to compile a list of all elements that compose the larger population.
• Useful when clusters occur naturally such as schools, universities, hospitals or other organizations.The cluster becomes a unit of analysis and therefore could be considered as representative of the population.
• The list of primary sampling should be compiled and could be stratified for sampling (could be districts where the schools/hospitals are located.

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17
Q

Non-Probability Sampling

A

No random - Samples are purposely selected

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18
Q

Non-Probability Sampling - Quota Sampling

A

Quota Sampling
• Attempts to gather data from the individuals in the same proportion as they are represented in the population. It includes such criteria as gender, sex, age, race, education and etc.
• Individuals could be approaches face to face, by phone, email, mail. If the individuals meet the criteria of the study, than they will be included to it.
• The weakness of this method is that allows the researcher to decide whom to include or not include into the study, thus creates the biases.

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19
Q

Non-Probability Sampling - Reliance on Available Subjects

A

Reliance on Available Subjects
or availability sampling (accidental sampling, or convenience sampling)
• is a sampling procedure that relies on available subjects

Major weakness
• These findings would represent the opinions only of people with the characteristics of those passing the sampling point at the specified times.

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20
Q

Non-Probability Sampling - Purposive/Judgemental Sampling

A

Purposive/Judgemental Sampling
• Is a method in which the researcher uses own judgment/knowledge in selecting sample members.
• Especially used when research to be conducted among the specific sub-group of people.

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21
Q

Non-Probability Sampling - Snowball Sampling

A

Snowball Sampling
• The term snowball refers to the process of accumulation as each located subject suggests other subjects.
• This sampling procedure also results in samples that have questionable representativeness, so it is used primarily for exploratory purposes.
• It is appropriate when the members of the specific population are difficult to find and they are located in multiple places.

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22
Q

Operationalization

A

The definition of a variable in terms of the specific activities to measure or indicate it with empirical evidence (i.e., survey questionnaire, a method of observing events in a field, etc.).
• The process of moving from conceptual definition of a concept to a specific activity or measure that allows a researcher to observe it empirically.

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23
Q

Conceptualization

A

The process by which the concepts are formed through the selective organization of sensory experience.
• The process of specifying what we mean by a term.
• Nominal Definition/Conceptual Definition - A statement that indicates the meaning of an abstract by expressing it in other abstract terms,
• We understand the word and its dimensions, but we do not have the set of rules to measure the concept.
1. In deductive research, it helps to translate portions of an abstract theory into testable hypothesis involving specific variables.
2. In inductive research, conceptualization is an important part of the process used to make sense of related observations.
3. In qualitative - Concepts aren’t always defined in the beginning; they are defined throughout the process.
4. In quantitative - Concepts are defined in the beginning.

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24
Q

Paradigms

A
  • Address the philosophical dimensions of social science
  • Set of fundamental assumptions and beliefs as to how the world is perceived
  • Framework perspective or models from which we see, interpret, and understand the world which then serves as thinking frameworks that guides the behaviour of the researcher
  • Shape whole research process
  • Hard to see - invisible
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25
Q

Philosophical Dimension - Ontology

A

How do we view reality? - Both share common view that social reality is external and objective
• Objectivist: Existence of reality is external and independent of social actors and their interpretation
• Subjectivist: Reality is dependent on social actors and assumes that individuals contribute to social phenomena

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26
Q

Philosophical Dimensions - Epistemology

A

How we know of what we know? - They advocate the use of a scientific approach by developing numeric measures to generate acceptable knowledge
Studies knowledge and the development of knowledge
• Debates around what knowledge is?
• How do we know what we claim to know?
• How we go about study things? How we perceive and approach research process?
• What steps do we need to take to get the knowledge (or even produce knowledge)?
Assumptions - Knowledge is:
• Out there to be discovered by researchers - as there is one absolute truth
• Developed based on our perceptions and experiences
• Socially constructed.

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27
Q

Philosophical Dimension - Axiology

A

What do we value? - They maintain separation from the researcher and the researched.
• Branch of philosophy which studies values.
• Values that guide the research (ex. the way we communicate participants, how we design our research question, and what values we bring in our research analysis.

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28
Q

Positivism/Post-Positivism Paradigm

A

Both start with testing the theory in the form of hypotheses and involve statistical tests in their research process:
• Social Reality is objective and independent of human experience (positivists)
• Maintain separation from the research and researched
• Develops numeric measures to generate knowledge - generalized knowledge (nomothetic approach)
• Believes in universality of knowledge
• Believes in generalization but admits that knowledge is a result of social conditioning (post-positivism)
• Social reality needs to be framed in a certain context (post-positivism)
• Uses qualitative data

29
Q

Interpretivism/Constructivism Paradigm

A
  • Opposite of positivism and post-positivism
  • Believes that knowledge is subjective
  • Reality is constructed by social actors and people
  • Individuals contribute to the construction of knowledge
  • Social reality can change and have multiple perspectives
  • Works with qualitative data (idiographic approach)
  • Provides detailed explanation and narratives - into the nuances to understand subjective stances
  • Research and research participants influence data and analysis
  • Uses qualitative data
30
Q

Pragmatism Paradigm

A

• Refuses to join paradigm debates between interpretivism and positivism
Depends on the questions that is posed
• Start with research question and determine research framework
• Accepts mixture of ontology, epistemology, and axiology
• Uses both qualitative and quantitative data to better understand the reality

31
Q

Transformative Paradigm

A

• Focuses on change and transformation
A specific goal that should focus on social (political) change
• Participatory/collaborative
Researchers and participants should work together and knowledge should be produced collaboratively
• Power and Justice oriented
• Focused on social change
• Different research approaches can be used (qualitative/quantitative).

32
Q

Paradigms/Worldview’s

A

Perspectives how we see and understand the world, and consequently the research process
Example: Positivism/Post positivism; Constructivism/Interpretivism, etc.

33
Q

Improving Reliability - Test-Retest Method

A

In numerous studies it is appropriate to make the same measurement more than once, if the results vary then the measurement method is unreliable.

34
Q

Improving Reliability - Split-Half Method

A

Reliability is achieved when hen responses to the same question are divided into two randomly selected halves are about the same. Looking for a high correlation to determine results as reliable.

35
Q

Improving Reliability - Using Established Measures

A

Use established measures from previous research.

36
Q

Improving Reliability - Reliability of Research Workers

A

Objectivity, free from biases, following the protocols precisely.

37
Q

Ordinal Measures

A

Attributes can be Ordered - Variables with attribute that we can logically rank-order are ordinal measures.
• Assign numbers to objects, but the numbers have meaningful order/rank.
• Establish a ranking, unknown distance between ranking.
• Ordinal data has order, but the intervals between scale points may be uneven.
• Because of a lack of equal distances, arithmetic operations are impossible, but logical operations can be performed on the ordinal data.

38
Q

Nominal Measures

A

Attributes are only named: Weakest - Variables whose attributes are the only characteristics of exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness are nominal measures.
• Assign numbers to objects where different numbers indicate different objects.
• The numbers have no real meaning other than differentiating between objects.
• Categorical or dichotomous, no natural order.
• Cannot quantify or even rank/order the categories: nominal data has no order, and the assignment of numbers to categories is purely arbitrary.

39
Q

Ratio Measures

A 
Absolute Zero - A level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes have all the qualities of a nominal, ordinal, and interval measures and in addition are based on a true zero point.
• Most precise, ordered
• Exact value
• Equal intervals
• Natural zero, not arbitrary
40
Q

Interval Measures

A

Distance is Meaningful -
A level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes are ranked ordered and actual distance separating those attributes does have meaning.
• Ordered categories.
• The distance between value is known (difference mathematically meaningful).
• Zero is arbitrary, it is a point on the scale where there is number above and below it.

41
Q

Exploratory Research

A

Could be first stage on the sequence of studies. Usually “What” question.
• Example: what are the factors which contributes to - generating new ideas

42
Q

Explanatory Research

A

Explains relationships, tests hypothesis.
• Example: How does salary influence employee satisfaction? How does room temperature influence student understanding of material during class?
• Relationships between the variables

43
Q

Descriptive Research

A

Focuses on ‘How’, ‘Who’? But also ‘What’? Description of specific settings, situations, etc.
• Example: What is the current level of employee satisfaction in University?
1. Provide detailed, highly accurate data
2. Document a causal process or mechanism
3. Report on the background or context of situation

44
Q

Academic Research (Pure Research)

A
  • Research is undertaken to further knowledge within the professional discipline
  • Research topics are selected based upon intellectual interests
  • The primary concern is with the methodological rigor and the connectedness of the research to social theory
  • Research is considered successful when it appears in a peer-reviewed academic journal
45
Q

Applied Research

A

• Research is a part of mission to address social
problem
• Topics for research are selected based upon problems identified by social agencies who provide the funding
• The main concern is the ability to generalize findings to areas of interests to sponsors of research who want to enact social change
• Research is considered successful when results are clearly communicated to a wider audience and when findings are used to inform policy or practice

46
Q

Literature Review

A
  • Systematic examination of previously published studies on a research question.
  • Carefully crafted summary of the recent studies conducted on a topic that includes key findings and methods the researcher used.
47
Q

Narrative or Traditional Literature Review

A
  • Critiques and summarizes a body of literature about the topic
  • The literature is researched from the relevant databases and is generally very selective
  • Purpose is to provide a comprehensive overview of the topic and to highlight significant areas of research
  • Helps identify gaps and refine the research question
48
Q

Systematic Review

A
  • More narrow search than traditional lit review. It answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that firs pre-specified eligibility criteria.
  • Could be searched in online databases using combination of controlled vocabulary
  • Don’t need to go through an ethics review.
49
Q

Scoping Review

A
  • Could be done for multiple purposes, but often used in the beginning of an article, dissertation or research proposal.
  • Conducted before the research begins and sets the stage for this research by highlighting gaps in the literature and explaining the need for the research about to be conducted, which is presented in the remainder of the article/dissertation/proposal.
  • Detailed in the paper so that readers can determine how the author discovered and selected which studies were included in the review.
50
Q

Conceptual Review

A
  • Groups articles according to concepts, categories, or themes.
  • Identifies the current understanding of the given research topic and discusses how this understanding was reached.
  • Provides a snapshot of where things are with this particular field of research.
51
Q

Critical Review

A

• Like a traditional literature review, but requires more detailed examination of the literature, in order to compare and evaluate a number of perspectives critically.

52
Q

State-of-the-Art Review

A
  • Conducted periodically, with a focus on the most recent research.
  • Described what is currently known, understood, or agreed upon regarding the research topic, and highlights where there are disagreements.
53
Q

Quantitative-Meta Analysis Review

A

• Combines RESULTS from studies and uses statistical techniques to test hypotheses.

54
Q

Primary Research

A

Involves generation of data, requires following research protocols.

55
Q

Secondary Research

A

Uses primary research sources as a source of data for analysis. It involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research.

56
Q

Linear Path in Research

A 
Follows a fixed sequence of steps leading to one direction
• Research question
• Theory selection and hypothesis
• Developing instruments
• Collect data
• Testing hypothesis with data
• Evaluate hypothesis
57
Q

Non-Linear Path in Research

A

Cyclical, back and forth direction (more circular)
• Broad question
• Specific research procedures

58
Q

Research Design

A

The specific strategy how to collect, analyze, and analyze data/Procedures for inquiry

Example: Experimental Design, Ethnography, Case Study, Narrative Inquiry, etc.

59
Q

Research Methods / Data Collection Methods

A

Techniques for data gathering

Example: Interview, survey, questionnaire, participant observation, etc.

60
Q

Research Methodology / Research Approach

A

The overall model behind the research/overall approach

Qualitative, Quantitative & Mixed Methods

61
Q

Qualitative Research

A

Information in the forms of words, sounds, images, objects, etc.
• Qualitative research focuses on generating meaning through description to understand complex social phenomena
• Uncovers stories, experiences, etc. it captures multiple truths
• Inductive Approach - generates new theory emerging from the data

62
Q

Quantitative Research

A

Information in the form of numbers
• Quantitate data explains, predicts, investigates relationships, describes current conditions
• Seeks to generalize data
• Captures one ‘truth’
• Deductive Approach - Aimed to test the theory, how one variable causes the other

63
Q

Independent Variable (X)

A

Manipulate, cause, influence a reaction in a research study
• Manipulator
• Cause
• Influencer

64
Q

Dependent Variable (Y)

A

The result and outcome of the independent variable action
• Result
• Effect
• Outcome

65
Q

Inductive Approach

A

A form of reasoning that moves from specific case to general cases
• Aims to develop a theory

66
Q

Deductive Approach

A

A form of reasoning that moves from the general principle to a specific case
• Aims to test the theory (can be an existing one)

67
Q

Idiographic Explanation

A

Uses qualitative approaches, can use ethnographic research (detailed observations)
• Idio - peculiar, unique, separate

68
Q

Nomothetic Explanation

A

Focuses on numbers and strives to produce general statements, gains quantitative research, for larger social patterns

HS233 Social Sciences Research (20 decks)

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