Midterm II fra pp Flashcards
Oxidative processes in living cells leads in general to
carbohydrates lipids and proteins will be degradated (catabolic pathways) resulting in chemical energy (ADP red. to ATP), heat, CO2 and H2O production
energy storage fats
Triglycerides and phospholipis -> FA -> AcetylCoA
substrate level phosphorylation is seen where
Glycolysis
GTP-forming step in TCA cycle
Where does the synthesis of creatine occur
in the kidney (1st reaction) and in the liver (2nd reaction)
Name the regulatory enzyme of creatine synthesis
Arg-Gly transamidinase
Thioester: btw
between a carboxylic acid and a thiol (SH) group, e.g., the thiol of coenzyme A (abbreviated CoA-SH) - High energy bond
thiol of CoA can react with
carboxyl group of acetic acid (yielding acetyl~CoA) or a fatty acid (yielding fatty acyl~CoA), water is made
The free energy change of phosphate hydrolysis of phosphocreatine: (kJ/mol)
-43.1kJ/mol
The free energy change of phosphate hydrolysis of thioester bonds: (kJ/mol)
-31.48kJ/mol
The free energy change of phosphate hydrolysis of ATP: (kJ/mol)
-30.6kJ/mol
heparin function
anti-coagulant
Aldose and ketose example of a triose?
Aldose; Glyceraldehyde
Aldose and ketose example of a pentose?
Aldose; ribose, deoxyribose
Aldose and ketose example of a hexose?
Aldose; Glucose, galactose, mannose
Functions of oligosaccharides?
- milk constituents
- prebiotics, digested by microbial flora
- ABO blood group specificity, antigenicity
- constituents of glycoproteins and glycolipids (membranes)
Bonds of Starch and glycogen?
Alpha-D-glucose monomers bound by alpha1-4 linkage, at branching points by alpha1-6 linkage
Function of spreading factor of hyaluronic acid?
Hyaluronidase (spreading factor) of sperms makes the fertilization of the ovum possible
-Heteropolysaccharides are also called
glycoproteins
Animals can synthetize glucose 6-phosphate via?
GNG
During strenuous exercise the glycogen is?
Broken down to glucose 6-phosphate and oxidized via the glycolysis pathway.
The synthesis of glucose in the liver requires energy in form of?
ATP
The energy needed for gluconeogenesis in the liver is supplied mainly by?
FA oxidation
Where does GG occur
Cytoplasm of liver, muscle, kidney and parenchymal cells
Where does GGL occur
cytoplasm of hepatocytes
Function of phosphodiesterase enzyme, is activated by
cAMP degradation, activated by insulin
GNG for glucose production is necessary as fuel source for
brain, testes, erythrocytes (in erythrocytes no mitochondria for ATP production) and adrenal medulla since glucose is the sole energy source for these organs
GNG occur mainly
in the liver
AcCoA synthesis from pyruvate where
pyruvate enters mitochondria to be synthesized into AcCoA
The two molecules of acetyl-CoA from the transition reaction enter the citric acid cycle. This results in the formation of?
6 NADH+H+
2 FADH2
2 GTP
4 CO2
Uncoupling protein examples:
thermogenin, dinitrophenol (warmth production)
Where does FA and steroid biosynthesis occur -> has high levels of which enzymes
cells of the liver, adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, testis and lactating mammary gland –> have high levels of the PPP enzymes
Lactose(milk sugar) consists of
β-D-gal + β-D-glu
Localization of galactogenesis
bone, cartilage, mammary gland
From galactose these endproducts can be synthesized
Chondroitin
lactose
Galactolysis intake how:
absorption of galactose by SGLT-1 (apical side of erythrocytes, similarly as glucose), then GLUT-2 (basolateral side of erythrocytes, similarly as glucose)
Transamination of alanine to make
pyruvic acid and glutamic acid
Where are transaminases located?
Cytosol or mitochondrion
Which two substances serve as the collection and receiving agent for nitrogen?
Alpha-ketoglutaric acid and glutamic acid
What happens during oxidative deamination?
An amino acid is converted into the corresponding keto acid by the removal of the amine functional group as ammonia, and replaced by ketone group
On what substance does the oxidative deamination primarily occur?
On glutamic acid, because glutamic acid was the end product of many transamination reactions.
Deamination is a reaction only for glutamic acid, but other amino acids are also deaminated. How?
A combination of transamination and deamination of glutamic acid = trans-deamination, a recycling type of reaction for glutamic acid. The original amino acid loses its amine group in the process.
Detoxification of ammonia in the kidney?
glutaminase -> NH4⁺
glutamin synthase found in
the liver
Coenzyme in decarboxylation of amino acids?
PALP
Steps before cholamine? found where
Ser [Symbol] ethanolamine = cholamine, eg. in phospholipids
Steps to Cysteamine and Beta-alanine?
Cys [Symbol] cysteamine
Asp [Symbol] Beta-alanine
Steps to Taurine?
Cys [Symbol] cysteic acid [Symbol] taurine
Steps to Putrescine and Cadaverine?
Ornitine [Symbol] Putrescine
Lys [Symbol] Cadaverine
Degradation of heme
by the cells of mononuclear phagocyte system=MPS in spleen, liver and bone marrow
Lecithin, Cephalin, Inositol phosphatides & amp; Plasmalogens
Membrane constituents
Degradation of plasmalogens by?
Phospolipases (PLAs) A1, A2 (snake venom), C & D
Where are the GALACTOcerebrosides found?
Predominantly in neuronal cell membranes.
Where are the GLUCOcerebrosides found?
Have the specific function to be in the cell membranes of macrophages.
Function of Gangliosides?
Give identity of the cells, such as blood group specificity
Where is Cholesterol synthesized?
Liver, gonads (and intestines)
Where is Cholesterol found?
In biological membranes and in the blood
beta ox where
matrix of mitochondrion
stearic acid atp
146
stearoyl CoA atp
148
glucagon and starch is made up of
alpha D glucose
cellulose made up of
beta D glucose
Function of cAMP stimulated by glucagon
increase glycogenolysis
Active PKA enzyme (protein kinase A)
Activate glycogenolysis and lipolysis
glycogenolysis is inactivated by
phosphorylation
glycogenesis is inactivated by
de-phosphorylation
insulin produces PIP3 which activates
glycogenesis
Adenylase Cyclase (AC) function and activated by
create cAMP
activated by glucagon and adrenalin
GNG in RU
low blood sugar conc. -> GNG takes place continously
imp in early lactation
Glycerol-P shuttle is found, function
in muscle and brain
- bring cytoplasmic NADH2 to mitochondrion, 2ATPs are used
erythrocytes use PPP for what
NADPH+H+ used in the reduction of glutathione, which protect against oxidative damage
blood glucose levels in ru, non-ru and birds
birds: 8-9mmol/L
non-ru: 4-5
ru: 2-3
Frucose is absorbed how in the liver
GLUT-5 transporter together with glucose on apical side
Rate limiting step in hemoglobin synthesis
Is the first step of the synthesis
Icterus types
prehepatic (because of hemolysis)
hepatic (because of liver disease)
posthepatic (because of bile stones)
The 3 steps(products) of degredation of heme
Heme-> biliverdin -> bilirubin
Is Heparin sulphated?
yes
Why is Heparin called a clearing factor?
Because of the liberation of lipoprotein lipase in the blood
Mitochondrial ATP synthase
A major source of cellular energy production in form of ATP is derived from the proton motive force, supplied to mitochondrial ATP synthase
Using NADH+H+ as the initial H/electron donor, complex I generates a net result of how many protons and H?
4 protons pumped out
complex 2 of resp chain
Succinate dehydrogenase, (FAD)
no proton pumping, fumarate prod
cytochromes in which complexes
Complexes III and IV
which complex in Resp chain make water
IV
ATP of resp chain is formed where
matrix of mitochondrium
What are the essential amino acids in ruminants?
None. Production happens in the rumen by microbes
what are ketogenic and glucogenic aa
glucogenic: aa can form AcCoA
ketogenic: aa can form OAC
- can be mixed type
are there more ketogenic or glucogenic amino acids
glucogenic
birds urea cycle
dont have, lacking arginase
What is the extrahepatic portosystemic shunt?
Blood of the portal vein enters in vena cava (not in the liver): risk of ammonia toxicosis increases (ammonia can not enter in the liver and urea cycle
– yorkies are most at risk!!
tp ammonia
in form of glutamine
catecholamines are derived from
tyramine
role of taurine
Have a role in bile acid synthesis. Bile acids are conjugated with Taurine to produce bile salts (we have to know its role in bile acid synthesis)
ESSENTIAL IN CATS
Main role of Glutathione?
Antioxidant activity, found in all cell types
What can emulsified fats be degraded by (after emulsification)
Pancreatic lipases (lipase and phospholipase A2)
Triacylglycerols are synthesized in the liver
- packed into
- solubilized in
- VLDLs
2. chylomicrons
transport and storage of cholesterol
storage: Esterified by palmitic or linoeic acid
transport: Esterified by fatty acids of lecithin
Where are the primary bile acids produced, and which?
Produced in the liver, cholic and chenodeoxycholic acid
Where are secondary bile acids produced, and which?
Produced in the intestines, deoxycholic acid and litocholic acid
How does the bile acids solubilize and transport lipids in aqueous environment?
micelles
What accounts for the majority of cholesterol breakdown in the body?
Hepatic synthesis of bile acids.
How does bile acids participate in cholesterol metabolism?
They function as hormones, that alter the transcription of the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis
start codon
AUG
