Midterm Flashcards
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
nature vs. nurture
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
empiricism
a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
humanistic psychology
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
structuralism
early school of thought promoted by James; explored how mental and behavioral processes function–how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
functionalism
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
applied research
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
informed consent
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it
hindsight bias
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hopes of revealing universal principles
case study
sampling that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random sampling
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experiment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the different groups
random assignment
experimental results caused by expectations alone
placebo
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
standard deviation
portion of the cerebral cortex just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements
frontal lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
parietal lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
occipital lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
temporal lobe
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed onto succeeding generations
natural selection
rapid eye movement sleep; a reocurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
REM sleep
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
depressants
the process of observing and imitating a certain behavior
modeling
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
sensory neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
motor neurons
a nerve cell
neuron
a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
dendrites
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables greater transmission
myelin sheath
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
synapse
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
axon
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
neurotransmitters
“morphine within”; a natural, opiate-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure
endorphin
the endocrine system’s most influential gland; regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
pituitary gland
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands; travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues
hormones
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress
adrenal glands
the body’s slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
endocrine system
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
medulla
the brain’s sensory control center, located on the top of the brainstem
thalamus
the oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull
brainstem
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement and balance
cerebellum
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities and helps govern the endocrine system
hypothalamus
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
top-down processing
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
sensation
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
perception
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
bottom-up processing
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
retina
the retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision
rods
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
optic nerve
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina that function in daylight or well-lit conditions
cones
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window
middle ear
a coiled, bony fluid-filled tube in the inner ear
cochlea
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or the auditory nerves
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
conduction hearing loss
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
vestibular sense
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned response; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
extinction
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
spontaneous recovery
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer of diminished if followed by a punisher
operant conditioning
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
shaping
any event or situation that evokes a response
stimulus
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
classical conditioning
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
punishment
the view that psychology should be an objective science and study behavior without reference to mental processes
behaviorism
