Ch. 2 Vocab Flashcards
thinking that doesn’t blindly accept arguments and conclusions; rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
critical thinking
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it
Hindsight bias
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Theory
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Hypothesis
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study; Ex: Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
Operational definition
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
Replication
A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Case study
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Naturalistic observation
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Survey
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Sampling bias
All those in a group being studied, from which samples can be drawn
Population
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Random sample
a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other
Correlation
a statistical index of the relationship between two variables
correlation coefficient
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; slope suggests the direction of the relationship b/t the two variables; amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter=high correlation)
scatterplot
the perception of a relationship where none exists
illusory correlation
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experiment
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
experimental group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
control group
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
random assignment
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
double-blind procedure
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
independent variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
confounding variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
dependent variable
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what is supposed to be
validity
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
descriptive statistics
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
mode
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
mean
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half the scores are below it
median
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
skewed distribution
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
range
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer fall near the extremes
normal curve
numerical data that allow one to generalize – to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
inferential statistics
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
statistical significance
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
culture
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
informed consent
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
debriefing
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
standard distribution
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
placebo effect
