Ch. 7 Vocab Flashcards
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning
encoding
the process of retaining encoded information over time
storage
the process of getting information out of memory storage
retrieval
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision; contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
parallel processing
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
sensory memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
short-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
long-term memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
working memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”; also called declarative memory
explicit memory
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
effortful processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
automatic processing
retention independent of conscious recollection; also called nondeclarative memory
implicit memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
echoic memory
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
chunking
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
spacing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
testing effect
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
shallow processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
deep processing
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
hippocampus
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
flashbulb memory
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
long-term potentiation (LTP)
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recall
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
recognition
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
relearning
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
priming
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
mood-congruent memory
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
serial position effect
an inability to form new memories
anterograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
retrograde amnesia
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
retroactive interference
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
repression
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
misinformation effect
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined; also called source misattribution–at the heart of many false memories
source amnesia
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”; cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
déjà vu
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
cognition
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
concept
a mental image or best example of a category; provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
prototype
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
creativity
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
convergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
divergent thinking
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics
algorithm
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
heuristic
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
insight
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
confirmation bias
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
mental set
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
intuition
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
availability heuristic
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
overconfidence
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
belief perseverance
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
framing
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
language
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
phoneme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word
morpheme
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others; semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
grammar
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
babbling stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
one-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements
two-word stage
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs
telegraphic speech
impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)
aphasia
controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Broca’s area
controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
Wernicke’s area
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
linguistic determinism
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
memory
