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TERM 2 BIOL2192 PATHO 1 > MIDTERM 1 > Flashcards

MIDTERM 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Hypotheses are based on what three factors?

A
  1. Inferences
  2. Observations
  3. Existing theory
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2
Q

Name 5 laws of cell theory

A
  1. Cell is basic unit of life
  2. Cells come from other cells
  3. Cells bear genetic material
  4. Tissues are a collection of similar cells performing one function
  5. Organism is collection of cells
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3
Q

What is the difference between anabolism and catabolism?

A

Anabolism: Forming
Catabolism: Breaking

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4
Q

What paradigm seeks to explain the relationship between organisms, and between organisms and the environment?

A

Ecology

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5
Q

What paradigm seeks to explain how genetic information is passed from DNA to RNA to proteins?

A

Molecular biology

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6
Q

What are 4 limitations of the biomedical model of disease?

A
  1. Excludes psychological/social factors
  2. Does not address the fact that many diseases do not have a single biological cause
  3. Does not address variations of normal
  4. Does not address variations in disease expression
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7
Q

Name 8 criteria to determine causality.

A
  1. Consistency
  2. Specificity
  3. Temporality
  4. Biological gradient
  5. Plausibility
  6. Coherence
  7. Experimental results
  8. Analogy
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8
Q

Define coherence in the context of causality.

A

Factor A causes Factor B both in the real world and in the lab.

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9
Q

What is the term for a disease with an unknown cause?

A

Idiopathic

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10
Q

What is the term for a disease that originated from medical treatment?

A

Iatrogenic

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11
Q

What is the term for the rate of new cases of a disease occurring in a specific population over a particular period of time?

A

Incidence

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12
Q

What is thet term for the number of cases of a disease in a specific population at a particular time?

A

Prevalence

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13
Q

What is the term for a disease that spreads suddenly to many people?

A

Epidemic

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14
Q

What is the term for the motality rate from all causes of death in a population in one year?

A

Crude mortality rate

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15
Q

What is incidence and prevalence used to described?

A

Morbidity

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16
Q

What kind of prevention is concerned with reducing the risk of disease?

A

Primary prevention

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17
Q

What kind of prevention is concerned with screening and early detection?

A

Secondary prevention

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18
Q

What kind of prevention is concerned with lessening the impact of an ongoing disease?

A

Tertiary prevention

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19
Q

What is the term for the range of conditions in which an organism can function normally?

A

Range of tolerance

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20
Q

What is the term for the upper and lower ends of the range of tolerance?

A

Critical values

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21
Q

What is the term for the values just above and below critical values?

A

Ranges of resistance

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22
Q

What is the term for the non-homeostatic range of conditions in which compensation occurs?

A

Allostasis

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23
Q

What is the term for the range beyond allostatic range in which compensations fail?

A

Allostatic overload

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24
Q

What is the stage at which compensations can no longer be maintained and deteriorate?

A

Allostatic overload

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25
Q

What is another term for allostatic overload?

A

Exhaustion

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26
Q

What is the term for the point at which conditions start causing tissue death?

A

Crisis

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27
Q

What kind of tissues have cells with a high rate of division and a short life span?

A

Labile tissues

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28
Q

What kind of tissues have cells with a slow rate of division but can go faster if needed?

A

Stable tissues

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29
Q

What kind of tissues have cells that don’t divide after they’ve matured?

A

Permanent tissues

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30
Q

What kind of adaptation involves a decrease in cell volume and number?

A

Atrophy

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31
Q

What kind of adaptation involves an increase in cell volume?

A

Hypertrophy

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32
Q

What kind of adaptation involves an increase in cell number?

A

Hyperplasia

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33
Q

What kind of hyperplasia occurs after tissues have lost mass due to injury?

A

Compensatory hyperplasia

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34
Q

What kind of adaptation involves reversible replacement of one type of cell by another type of cell?

A

Metaplasia

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35
Q

What is the term for the appearance of abnormal, disorganized cellular forms?

A

Dysplasia

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36
Q

What happens to cells in hypoxic conditions? (3)

A
  1. Less ATP produced
  2. Inhibits sodium potassium pump
  3. Sodium accumulates inside cell, along with water (and calcium)
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37
Q

What is the difference between a thrombus and an embolus?

A

Thrombus: blood clot
Embolus: ANY material that moves through blood vessels

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38
Q

What happens to the cell with gradual ischemia?

A

Inflammation

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39
Q

What is the difference between ischemia and hypoxia?

A

Hypoxia: low oxygen
Ischemia: low blood flow

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40
Q

What is the term for the cellular process of using oxygen to convert nutrients to ATP?

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

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41
Q

Why would lipid peroxidation cause swelling and other cellular injury?

A

Decrease integrity of cell walls, mitochondrial membranes, and lysosomes

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42
Q

Why does reperfusion injury happen? (2)

A
  1. Mitochondria damaged during the ischemic event can no longer process oxygen efficiently, causing increased formation of reactive oxygen species
  2. ROS causes leaky membrane and increases intracellular calcium
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43
Q

What are two kinds of antioxidants and examples?

A
  1. Exogenous antioxidants: vitamins like A, C, E
  2. Endogenous antioxidants: enzymes like glutathione reductase
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44
Q

What are two causes of cellular infiltrations?

A
  1. Excessive synthesis
  2. Inability to break down materials
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45
Q

What causes fatty liver?

A

Alcoholism etc. impairs the ability to metabolize fat, so it accumulates within the cells. When the cells burst, the fat deposits in the extracellular space

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46
Q

Name two kinds of calcification

A
  1. Dystrophic calcification
  2. Metastatic calcification
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47
Q

Why is calcification dangerous?

A

Calcium increases enzymatic function, which can break down cell structures

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48
Q

Which type of calcification involves previously injured tissue, and is common in older adults?

A

Dystrophic calcification

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49
Q

What type of calcification involves calcium deposits in previously normal tissue?

A

Metastatic calcification

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50
Q

Name 5 types of pigments that can accumulate

A
  1. Lipofuscin
  2. Melanin
  3. Hemosiderin, bilirubin, biliverdin
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51
Q

What kind of accumulation looks like crystal, and is caused by viral infection, extracellular glycoprotein, or excess basement membrane?

A

Hyaline accumulation

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52
Q

What are two products of immune cells that can cause cell injury?

A
  1. Enzymes
  2. ROS
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53
Q

What is the term for condensation of the cell’s nucleus?

A

Pykinosis

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54
Q

What is the term for destruction of the cell’s nucleus?

A

Karyolysis

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55
Q

What kind of necrosis looks firm and opaque, and is caused by lack of blood supply?

A

Coagulation necrosis

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56
Q

What kind of necrosis looks like crumbly cheese?

A

Caseation

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57
Q

What kind of necrosis looks like a liquid mass, and is caused by lysosomal enzyme release?

A

Liquefactive/colliquative necrosis

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58
Q

What kind of necrosis looks opaque and soapy, and is caused by release of lipases?

A

Fatty necrosis

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59
Q

What kind of apoptosis happens during fetal development?

A

Developmental apoptosis

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60
Q

What is the term for the enzymes that break down the cytoskeleton and activate endonucleases?

A

Initiator/executioner caspases

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61
Q

What kind of apoptosis is caused by an external signal?

A

Extrinsic apoptotic pathway

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62
Q

What kind of apoptosis is initiated by the cell?

A

Intrinsic apoptotic pathway

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63
Q

What activates initiator caspases?

A

Cytochrome C

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64
Q

What triggers the release of cytochrome C, and where does cytochrome C come from?

A

Pro-apoptotic molecules; mitochondrial membrane

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65
Q

What is produced as a result of apoptosis?

A

Apoptotic bodies

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66
Q

What is the term for when sugars spontaneously attach to proteins?

A

Glycation

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67
Q

Name two disorders characterized by accelerated aging

A

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria, Werner syndrome

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68
Q

What is the term for the multiple repetitions of DNA sequences at the end of chromosomes that do not code for proteins?

A

Telomeres

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69
Q

What enzyme adds telomere length to chromosomes?

A

Telomerase

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70
Q

What kind of cells express telomerase?

A

Stem cells, germ cells, cancer cells

71
Q

How is apoptosis different from necrosis?

A

Apoptosis: Intentional, programmed, does not cause inflammation

Necrosis: Passive, accidental, causes inflammation

72
Q

What is considered “apoptosis at a tissue level?”

A

Inflammation

73
Q

Name 4 purposes of inflammation

A
  1. Restrict
  2. Isolate
  3. Destroy
  4. Clean up
74
Q

Name 4 ways inflammation removes offenders

A
  1. Dilute
  2. Destroy
  3. Neutralize
  4. Phagocytosis
75
Q

What is another term for scarring?

76
Q

Name 4 different stages that may follow acute inflammation

A
  1. Regeneration
  2. Chronic inflammation
  3. Fibrosis
  4. Abscess
77
Q

Name 4 hallmark signs of acute inflammation

A
  1. Redness
  2. Swelling
  3. Heat
  4. Pain
78
Q

What are 2 series of events that happen with acute inflammation?

A

Vascular response
Cellular response

79
Q

What are 2 goals of the vascular response of inflammation?

A
  1. Restrict area
  2. Dilute and slow down offenders
80
Q

What is the first step of the vascular inflammatory response?

A

Transient vasoconstriction

81
Q

Name 7 things vascular endothelial cells secrete in the inflammatory response

A
  1. anticoagulants
  2. vasodilators
  3. vasoconstrictors
  4. cell adhesion molecules
  5. histamine
  6. nitric oxide
  7. growth factors
82
Q

What is exudate composed of?

A
  1. Fluid
  2. Plasma proteins, including antibodies
  3. Immune mediating molecules
83
Q

What term describes the decreased blood velocity in the vascular inflammatory response?

A

Vascular stasis

84
Q

Name 3 granular leukocytes

A

Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils

85
Q

What term describes the structure of neutrophils?

A

Polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs)

86
Q

What 4 things activate neutrophils?

A
  1. Antibodies
  2. Cytokines
  3. Complement
  4. Pathogens
87
Q

What happens to neutrophils after they serve their purpose?

A

Apoptosis, then secretion in pus

88
Q

Which leukocytes help terminate the inflammatory response?

A

Eosinophils

89
Q

Which leukocytes secrete the chemical mediators heparin and histamine during the inflammatory response?

90
Q

Name 2 non-granular leukocytes

A

Monocytes, lymphocytes

91
Q

What two types of cells do monocytes differentiate into?

A

Macrophages, dendritic cells

92
Q

Which leukocytes are antigen presenting cells?

A

Monocytes (dendritic cells)

93
Q

What 4 chemical mediators do monocytes secrete?

A
  1. prostaglandins
  2. leukotrienes
  3. platelet activating factor
  4. cytokines
94
Q

What leukocytes are part of cell mediated immunity?

A

Lymphocytes

95
Q

What cellular adhesion molecule do endothelial cells secrete in cellular recruitment?

96
Q

What terms describe the initial loose adhesion and slowing down of leukocytes?

A

Margination and rolling

97
Q

During adhesion, _______ on leukocytes bind with _______ on endothelial cells

A

Integrins, ligands

98
Q

Name 3 synonyms for the extravasation of leukocytes

A

Emigration, diapedesis, transmigration

99
Q

What particles attract leukocytes and aid in the formation of pseudopodia in chemotaxis?

A

Chemoattractants (type of cytokine)

100
Q

Name 2 opsonins

A

Antibodies, complement

101
Q

Name 3 steps of phagocytosis

A
  1. Binding
  2. Phagosome formation
  3. Phagolysosome formation
102
Q

Name 4 manifestations of acute inflammation

A
  1. Serous inflammation
  2. Purulent inflammation
  3. Hemorrhagic inflammation
  4. Transudate
103
Q

Name the term for a localized purulent inflammation

104
Q

Name the term for a diffuse purulent inflammation

A

Cellulitis

105
Q

Name 3 plasma-derived inflammatory mediators

A
  1. Complement system
  2. Coagulation system
  3. Kinin system
106
Q

Where are complement proteins synthesized?

107
Q

What are 3 things complement proteins do in inflammation?

A
  1. Activate leukocytes
  2. Opsonize pathogens
  3. Increase vascular permeability
108
Q

Name 2 ways clotting factors are activated

A
  1. Extrinsic: damage to blood vessels
  2. Intrinsic: when platelets bind to exposed collagen
109
Q

Clotting factors convert the protein __________ into the enzyme __________

A

Prothrombin, thrombin

110
Q

How is the complement system activated?

A

When a complement protein, an antibody, and a pathogen bind to form a complex

111
Q

How is the kinin system activated?

A

Clotting factor XII

112
Q

What are 3 cells that store histamine?

A

Mast cells, platelets, basophils

113
Q

Where is serotonin stored?

114
Q

When is serotonin released?

A

Platelet aggregation

115
Q

What substance do phopholipases convert phospholipids into?

A

Arachidonic acid

116
Q

What eicosanoids are produced when cyclooxygenases act on arachidonic acid?

A

Prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes

117
Q

What is the difference between prostacyclins and thromboxanes?

A

Prostacyclins inhibit clotting through vasodilation, and thromboxanes promote clotting by activating platelets

118
Q

What eicosanoids are produced when lipoxygenases act on arachidonic acid?

A

leukotrienes, 5-HETE

119
Q

What do leukotrienes cause?

A

Vasoconstriction, vascular permeability

120
Q

What does 5-HETE aid in?

A

Chemotaxis

121
Q

Name 5 kinds of cells that produce cytokines

A
  1. Mast cells
  2. Endothelial cells
  3. Macrophages
  4. Granular cells
  5. Lymphocytes
122
Q

Name 4 sites stimulated by cytokines

A
  1. Endothelium
  2. Hypothalamus
  3. Liver
  4. Fibroblasts
123
Q

What are 2 functions of fever?

A

Increase metabolism, promote WBC activity

124
Q

What 3 factors do macrophages produce in chronic inflammation?

A
  1. Proteolytic enzymes
  2. Thromboplastin
  3. Angiogenesis factors
125
Q

What is the term for an accumulation of macrophages/toxins, surrounded by leukocytes, and collagen?

126
Q

What is the term for the stage of scarring when the tissue pulls the wound margins together?

A

Contraction

127
Q

What is the term for the stage of scarring when the scar tissue matures and loses vascularity?

A

Cicatrization

128
Q

What kind of wound healing involves gauze packing?

A

Healing by second intention

129
Q

What kind of wound healing is also called delayed/secondary closure?

A

Healing by third intention

130
Q

What is the term for scar tissue forming around a blood vessel?

131
Q

What is the term for a wound rupturing due to insufficient collagen production?

A

Dehiscence

132
Q

Are phagocytes part of innate immunity or adaptive immunity?

A

Innate immunity

133
Q

Which cells live in every organ and carry out regular low level removal of foreign material?

A

Histiocytes

134
Q

Where do T cells live?

A

Lymphoid tissue, blood

135
Q

Which T cells are responsible for antigen recognition and destruction?

A

Cytotoxic T cells

136
Q

Which T cells recognize antigens and release cytokines to promote lymphocyte activity?

A

Helper T cells

137
Q

Which T cells help regulate the immune system, and prevent tissue graft rejection and autoimmunity?

A

Suppressor T cells

138
Q

Which lymphocytes secrete antibodies and bind antigens?

139
Q

What two kinds of cells do B cells turn into?

A

Plasma cells and memory B cells

140
Q

What component of antibodies allow them to bind almost any antigen?

A

Variable fragments

141
Q

Which immunoglobulin is the largest and first antibody produced?

A

IgM (Macroglobulin)

142
Q

Which immunoglobulin is the strongest and most common antibody?

A

IgG (Gammaglobulin)

143
Q

Which immunoglobulin is found in body fluids like sweat, saliva, mucus, tears, and breast milk?

144
Q

Which immunoglobulin is mostly found in the upper respiratory tract?

145
Q

Which immunoglobulin is normally bound to mast cells, and activated in allergic reactions or parasitic infections?

146
Q

What are the 3 phases of the complement system?

A
  1. Recognition
  2. Complement fixation (cascade)
  3. Complex attack formation (lysis)
147
Q

What are 3 other functions of complement?

A
  1. Chemoattractant
  2. Opsonins
  3. Stimulate histamine release
148
Q

What does immunization do to B cells?

A

Converts them to memory cells

149
Q

What is the purpose of white pulp in the spleen?

A

Stores white blood cells and plasma

150
Q

What is the purpose of red pulp in the spleen?

A

Stores blood reserve

151
Q

Name 3 functions of the spleen

A
  1. Blood reserve
  2. Breaks down old RBCs
  3. Stores monocytes to be mobilized
152
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary immune deficiencies?

A

Primary deficiencies are congenital, secondary deficiencies are due to exogenous factors

153
Q

What kind of treatment is used for HIV/AIDS?

A

Antiretroviral therapy

154
Q

What happens after an HIV virus binds to a cell?

A

Releases RNA

155
Q

What happens to HIV RNA after it is released into a cell?

A

Converted to HIV DNA

156
Q

What happens to HIV DNA once it is converted?

A

Integrates into cell nucleus

157
Q

What happens after the HIV DNA is integrated into the cell nucleus?

A

Transcription of HIV proteins

158
Q

What happens to HIV proteins after they are produced?

A

Packaged and released as a new virus

159
Q

What type of hypersensitivity is also called an allergic reaction?

A

Type I hypersensitivity

160
Q

What is the term for a histaminic local allergic reaction?

161
Q

What causes a delayed, severe allergic reaction?

A

Eicosanoids, smooth muscle

162
Q

What medications can treat anaphylaxis?

A

Corticosteroids, beta 2 adrenergic agonists

163
Q

What type of hypersensitivity is also called autoimmune disorder?

A

Type II hypersensitivity

164
Q

What causes autoimmune disorder? (the mechanism)

A

IgG or IgM bind to connective tissue cells, leading cytotoxic T cells to destroy self tissues

165
Q

What is the term for masses of antibodies and antigens bound together?

A

Immune complexes

166
Q

What kind of hypersensitivity results from imbalanced antigens and antibodies?

A

Type III hypersensitivity

167
Q

What kind of hypersensitivity results from resistant intracellular bacteria, causing chronic phagocytosis of self tissues?

A

Type IV hypersensitivity

168
Q

What are 5 causes of autoimmune disorders?

A
  1. Molecular mimicry
  2. Chemical alteration of self antigen
  3. Exposure to hidden self antigen
  4. Prior infection
  5. Congenital
169
Q

Why is type I diabetes mellitus considered an autoimmune disorder?

A

Results from autoimmune destruction of pancreatic Islets of Langerhans

170
Q

Why is insulin needed in the body?

A
  1. Allow glucose uptake by muscles and liver
  2. Prevent glucose overload in kidneys
  3. Prevent hypoglycemia through storage of glucose
171
Q

What is the term for the system of glycoproteins bound to the cell membrane?

A

Major histocompatibility complex

172
Q

What are the 2 components of an antigen?

A
  1. The cell’s major histocompatibility complex
  2. Protein fragment from pathogen
173
Q

What kind of cells are activated by the major histocompatibility complex?

A

Killer T cells

TERM 2 BIOL2192 PATHO 1 (11 decks)

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