micro lecture test 2 6-9 and 15 Flashcards
Discussion question:
Bacterial growth requirements
Essential nutrients: microbes cannot make; must get
from their environment EX: CN PHOS
Growth factors: special nutrients required by some
bacteria. EX: Haemophilus influenzae has a
growth factor called heme, which is required to
make ATP.
Moisture: Biofilm-a mass of moisture and microbes
on a solid surface. EX: An E. coli biofilm on a
catheter. EX: Streptococcus mutans creating
a biofilm on our teeth (plaque).
What is the fate of a bacterium that winds up
in our blood?
It has osmotic balance and it is fine.
What is the fate of a bacterium that winds up
in pure drinking water (100% water)?
It will take in extra water (osmosis) but
probably not explode.
What is the fate of a bacterium that winds up
on meat being preserved with a 90% NaCl solution?
It will lose water quickly (osmosis) and die.
Bacteria and pH: 6.5-7.5
This is the pH “safe range” for bacteria.
Bacteria and pH: 7.4
This is physiologic pH: the pH of our blood
and tissue fluid.
Bacteria and pH: 1.5-3.0
This is the pH range of stomach acid.
Helicobacter pylori: causes
It causes most stomach ulcers and can
cause stomach cancer.
Helicobacter pylori: urease
Helicobacter pylori makes the most urease
enzyme of any bacterium.
Helicobacter pylori: ammonia
Helicobacter pylori makes the most ammonia
of any bacterium.
Discussion question:
Bacterial metabolism
Heterotrophs: rely on other organisms to make the
organic compounds they need.
EX: E. coli (saprophytic)
Autotrophs: use CO(2) discarded by heterotrophs
to make their own organic compounds.
EX: Gleocapsa (photosynthetic)
Bacterial chromosome: bacteria tend to
have one circular chromosome with about 6,000 genes. 1 gene = 1 protein
Bacteria use their genes to proteins for
the plasma membrane, cell wall, and enzymes.
AMP
Binds to and activates amino acids so they can
be used to make a protein.
ADP
A precursor cells use to make ATP.
ATP
An energy carrier living cells must make to
stay alive.
Catabolic/Exergonic with example
Catabolic: a reaction where a cell breaks down
a large molecule into small molecules.
Exergonic: a cell reaction that releases energy.
Example of both terms: a process called
Aerobic Respiration.
Anabolic/Endergonic with example
Anabolic: a reaction where a cell hooks together
small molecules to make a large molecule.
Endergonic: a cell reaction that requires energy.
Example of both terms: a process called Photosynthesis.
Fermentation: how many ATPs produced?
If any cell does a process called Fermentation,
they gain only 2 ATPs per glucose broken down.
Glycolysis: main purpose
The initial breakdown of glucose.
Glycolysis: require oxygen/membrane?
Glycolysis does not require oxygen and
it does not require a membrane.
Glycolysis: Location
For all cells, Glycolysis takes place
somewhere in the cytoplasm.
Glycolysis: products (per glucose)
2 ATPs, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvic acid
Glycolysis in Fermentation: How are the
products used?
ATPs: used as energy to drive endergonic reactions
2 NADH and 2 pyruvic acid: used to make waste
products like lactic acid and ethanol
Aerobic Respiration: How many ATPs gained
per glucose in the overall process: Eukaryotic
cells vs. Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic: 36 ATPs
Prokaryotic: 38 ATPS
Glycolysis in Aerobic Respiration: How are
the products used?
2 ATPs: used as energy to drive endergonic reactions
2 NADH: go straight to the Electron transport step
to be used to make ATPs
2 Pyruvic acid: go straight to the Krebs cycle to be
broken down further to make things like ATP
Krebs cycle: main purpose
To break down pyruvic acid and make
things like ATP.
Krebs cycle: require oxygen/membrane?
The Krebs cycle does not require oxygen
and it does not require a membrane.
Krebs cycle: Location
Eukaryotic cells vs. Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells: in mitochondria, near the inner membrane
Prokaryotic cells: near the plasma membrane
Krebs cycle: products (per glucose)
2 ATPs, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 6 CO2
Krebs cycle: How are the products used?
2 ATPs: used as energy to drive endergonic reactions
6 NADH: go straight to the Electron transport step to
be used to make ATPs
2 FADH2: go straight to the Electron transport step to
be used to make ATPs
6 CO2: go to our blood, then to our lungs, and then
exhaled
Electron transport: main purpose
To use carriers called NADH and FADH2 to
make ATPs.
Electron transport: require oxygen/membrane?
The Electron transport step does require oxygen
and it does require a membrane.
Electron transport: Location
Eukaryotic cells vs. Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells: in mitochondria, on the inner membrane.
Prokaryotic cells: on the plasma membrane
Electron transport step: products (per glucose)
Eukaryotic cells vs. Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells: 32 ATPs
Prokaryotic cells: 34 ATPS
Electron transport step: How are the products used?
All of the ATPs are used as energy to
drive endergonic reactions.
SLP (Substrate-Level Phosphorylation):
require oxygen? require a membrane?
used in what steps?
N/N GK
Require oxygen: No Require a membrane: No
Used in Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
Chemiosmotic method: require oxygen?
require a membrane? used in what steps?
Y/Y ET
require oxygen: Yes require a membrane: Yes
Used only in the Electron transport step.
Chemiosmotic diagram: electron energy
used for?
The electron energy is used to do active transport
and pump hydrogen ions (H+) out of the matrix.
Chemiosmotic diagram: energy from
facilitated diffusion used for?
The energy from facilitated diffusion is used
to drive the reaction to convert ADP into ATP.
Chemiosmotic diagram: why is oxygen required?
Oxygen is required to act as the final electron acceptor
and recycle electrons into molecules of water.
Chemiosmotic diagram: why is a membrane required?
A membrane is required to create two spaces
and make the hydrogen ions (H+) flow.
Fat digestion: why is oxygen required?
When a cell breaks down fat, it always winds
up in the Electron transport step, which
requires oxygen.
Miescher
Discovered a substance in the nucleus of
cells that he named nuclein, which became
known decades later as DNA.
Avery
Proved that DNA is the genetic material
that passed on traits.
Watson & Crick
Figured out the exact structure of DNA.
Double helix
Each molecule of DNA is two strands
twisted around each other.
Nucleotides
The tiny building blocks dow each strand
of DNA. Each nucleotide contains a
sugar (Deoxyribose), a phosphate group
(PO4), and a base.
DNA: base pairing
In DNA, the bases pair up across the two
strands as either A-T (Adenine-Thymine)
or C-G (Cytosine-Guanine).
Deoxyribose: 1` carbon
What is always attached to the 1` carbon
is the base.
Deoxyribose: 3` carbon
What is always attached to the 3` carbon
is the phosphate group of the next nucleotide
in line.
Deoxyribose: 5` carbon
What is always attached to the 5` carbon
is the phosphate group of that particular nucleotide.
What is the average number of nucleotides in
one molecule of human DNA?
139,000,000
What is the approximate number of
genes in a human cell?
22,500
What is the average number of genes
on one human chromosome?
489
What is the average number of nucleotides
in one human gene?
54,000
Genes: pass on instructions
Genes pass on instructions by way of their
base sequence. A cell reads the bases in
groups of 3. Each group of 3 bases dictates
an amino acid.
DNA vs. RNA: strands
DNA molecules are two strands twisted.
RNA molecules are one strand.
DNA vs. RNA: sugar
DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose.
RNA contains a sugar called ribose.
DNA vs. RNA: bases
DNA contains a base called thymine and these
base pairs: A-T C-G
RNA contains a base called uracil instead of
thymine and during certain cell processes RNA bases pair up as: A-U C-G
Conjugation: definition
The transfer of a plasmid from one bacterium
to another.
Transformation: Griffith
Griffith used the R(L) + S(D) combination
to discover a process called transformation
in bacteria.
Transformation: Avery
Avery used the R(L) + S(D-DNA)
combination to prove that DNA is
the genetic material that passes
on traits.
Discussion question:
Phylogenetic tree, three Domains
Phylogenetic tree: a diagram that uses DNA
sequencing to determine how close the
relationship is between organisms.
Three Domains:
Bacteria: regular bacteria, mitochondria,
chloroplasts
Archaea: thermophiles, halophiles,
methanogens
Eukarya: protozoans, single-celled
algae, fungi, plants, animals
Mechanical barriers: 2 examples
skin and mucous membranes
Chemical barriers: 2 examples
stomach acid and lysozyme
3 places we all have lysozyme
-some white blood cells
-perspiration (sweat)
-tears
Phagocytosis: 3 cells
-Neutrophils engulf bacteria only.
-Macrophages engulf bacteria and viruses.
-Eosinopils engulf antigen/antibody complexes.
Inflammation: 2 examples
-a stuffy nose
-the area around a cut turns red
How do Complement proteins help phagocytosis?
By doing a process called opsonization.
How do Complement proteins help inflammation?
By stimulating mast cells and basophils in to action.
How do Complement proteins help the immune system?
By doing a process called cytolysis.
How do proteins called Kinins help phagocytosis?
By doing a process called opsonization.
How do proteins called Kinins help
inflammation to occur?
By causing to happen both vasodilation and
capillary leakage in the area around a cut.
