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DAT Biology > Metabolism > Flashcards

Metabolism Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body

A

metabolism

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2
Q

metabolic reactions that break down large chemicals and release energy

A

catabolic reactions

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3
Q

metabolic reactions which build up large chemicals and require energy

A

anabolic reactions

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4
Q

The acquisition and consumption of food and other raw materials

A

ingestion

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5
Q

The process of converting food into a usable soluble form so it can pass through membranes in the digestive tract and enter the body

A

digestion

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6
Q

the passage of nutrient molecules through the lining of the digestive tract into the body through diffusion or active transport

A

absorption

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7
Q

the circulation of essential compounds required to nourish the tissues and removal of waste products from the tissues

A

transport

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8
Q

the building up of new tissues from digested food materials

A

assimilation

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9
Q

the consumption of oxygen by the body; cells use oxygen to convert glucose into ATP

A

respiration

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10
Q

the removal of waste products produced during metabolic processes like respiration and assimilation

A

excretion

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11
Q

The creation of complex molecules from simple ones

A

synthesis

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12
Q

The control of physiological activities

A

regulation

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13
Q

the steady state of the internal environment

A

homeostasis

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14
Q

the ability to respond to a stimulus

A

irritability

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15
Q

an increase in size caused by cell division and synthesis of new materials

A

growth

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16
Q

the generation of additional individuals of a species

A

reproduction

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17
Q

The cells of the body obtain energy for ___, ___, and ___ through ___ ___. This process includes the intake of ___ from the environment, the transport of it in the ___, and the ultimate oxidation of ___ ___ in the cell

A

growth, homeostasis, repair, aerobic respiration, oxygen, blood, fuel molecules

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18
Q

____ and ___ are the favoured fuel molecules in living cells. As ____ is removed from them, the __ ___ is made available. The ___ bond is energy rich and in comparison to other bonds it is capable of releasing a relatively large amount of ___ per ___. In contrast, ___ contains little usable energy, and is the stable, ___ end product of respiration

A

carbohydrates, fats, HH, bond energy, C-H, energy, mole, CO2, energy-exhausted

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19
Q

During respiration, high-energy ___ atoms are removed from __ ___. This is called ___ and is an ___ reaction. The subsequent acceptance of hydrogen by a hydrogen ____ (___ in the final step), is the __ component of the redox reaction. Energy released by this reduction is used to form a ______ ___ bond in ____.

A

hydrogen, organic molecules, dehydrogenation, oxidation, acceptor, oxygen, reduction, high-energy, phosphate, ATP

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20
Q

Although the initial oxidation step requires ___ ___ the net result of the redox reaction is __ ___. IF all of this energy was released in a __ ___, little could be harnessed. Instead the reductions occur in a series of small steps called the __ ___ __

A

energy input, energy production, single step, electron transport chain

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21
Q

The first stage of glucose catabolism is ____. This is a series of reactions that leads to the __ ___ of glucose into two molecules of _____, the production of ___, and the reduction of ____ into ___. All of these reactions occur in the ___ and are mediated by specific enzymes.

A

glycolysis, oxidative breakdown, pyruvate, ATP, NAD+, NADH, cytoplasm

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22
Q

Glycolysis begins when glucose reacts with ____ to form _____. When this compound interacts with the enzyme __ ___, the compound ____ is formed

A

hexokinase, glucose-phosphate, phosphoglucose isomerase, fructose-6-phosphate

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23
Q

Fructose-6-phosphate interacts with the enzyme ____ to form the compound ______ _____. The enzyme __ converts this compound into ______. After a number of enzymatic reactions, the compound ____ is formed. This is converted to ___ by the enzyme __ ___.

A

phosphofructosekinase, fructose 1,6-biphosphate, aldolase, glyceraldehyde 3-phopshate, phosphoenolpyruvate, pyruvate, pyruvate kinase

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24
Q

When fructose 1,6-biphosphate is made into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, ___ ____ is also one of the molecules produced. This compound is ___ into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Thus ___ molecules of this are formed per molecule of glucose and all the subsequent steps occur twice.

A

dihydroxyacetone phosphate, isomerized, two

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25
Q

From one molecule of glucose, ___ molecules of pyruvate are obtained, and ___ ATP are used. ___ ATP into are generated. Thus, there is net production of ___ ATP per glucose molecule. This type of phosphorylation is called __ __ ___ because ATP synthesis is directly coupled with the ___ of glucose without the participation of an ____ molecule such has NAD+.

A

2, 2, 4, 2, substrate level phosphorylation, degradation, intermediate

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26
Q

___ ___ which ends in fermentation, produces only ___ ATP per glucose molecule

A

anaerobic respiration, 2

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27
Q

After glycolysis, much of the initial energy stored in the glucose molecule has not been ___ and is still present in the __ __ of pyruvate. Depending on the capabilities of the organism, ___ _____ can proceed in one of two directions. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is reduced during the process of ____. Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is further ___ during __ __ in the __

A

released, chemical bonds, pyruvate degradation, fermentation. oxidized, cellular respiration, mitochondria

28
Q

During fermentation, ___ must be regenerated for glycolysis to continue in the absence of ____. This is accomplished by reducing pyruvate into ___ or __ ___. This process only produces __ ATP per glucose molecule

A

NAD+, O2, ethanol, lactic acid, 2

29
Q

___ fermentation occurs in some ___ and some bacteria. The pyruvate produced in glycolysis is converted to ___. In this way, ___ is regenerated and glycolysis can continue

A

alcohol, yeasts, ethanol, NAD+

30
Q

Lactic acid fermentation occurs in certain __ and ___ and in human __ __ during ___ ___. When the oxygen supply to muscle cells lags behind the rate of glucose catabolism, the pyruvate generated is ___ to lactic acid, and ____ is generated

A

fungi, bacteria, muscle cells, strenuous activity, reduced, NAD+

31
Q

Cellular respiration is the most ____ catabolic pathway used by organisms to harvest energy stored in glucose. Cellular respiration can yield ____ ATP per molecule of glucose. This is an ____ process, and __ acts as the final acceptor of electrons that are passed from carrier to carrier during the final stage of __ ___. The metabolic reactions of cell respiration occur in the _____, and are catalyzed by reaction-specific enzymes

A

efficient, 36-38, aerobic, oxygen, glucose oxidation, mitochondria

32
Q

During __ ___, the pyruvate formed during glycolysis is transported from the cytoplasm to the __ ____ where it is _____ (loses a CO2), and the ___ group that remains is transferred to ______ ___ to form ____. In the process, ___ is reduced to ____

A

pyruvate decarboxylation, mitochondrial matrix, decarboxylated, acetyl, coenzyme A, acetyl-CoA, NAD+, NADH

33
Q

During the __ ___ cycle or the ___ cycle, the ____ acetyl group from acetyl-CoA combines with ____, a four carbon molecule, to form the six carbon molecule ____. Through a series of reactions, two ___ are released and ____ is regenerated for use in another turn of the cycle

A

citric acid, krebs, 2-carbon, oxaloacetate, citrate, CO2, oxaloacetate

34
Q

For each turn of the citric acid cycle, ___ ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation via a _____ intermediate. In addition, electrons are transferred to ___ and ___, generating ___ and _____ respectively. These coenzymes then transport the electrons to the __ ___ __, where more ATP is produced by __ ___.

A

1, GTP, NAD+, FAD, NADH, FADH2, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation

35
Q

The net reaction for glycolysis involves ___ glucose + 2 ____ + 2_____ + 2_____ –> 2 pyruvate + 2____, + ___ NADH + 2 ___, + 2___

A

ADP, Pi, NAD+, ATP, 2, H+, H2O

36
Q

The net reaction of the citric acid cycle per glucose molecule is ____ acetyl CoA + ____ NAD+ + 2____ + 2 ___ + 2Pi, + ___ H2O –> 4 ____ + ___ NADH + __ FADH2 + 2 ____ + 4H+ + 2 ____

A

2, 6, FAD, GDP, 4, CO2, 6, 2, GTP, CoA

37
Q

The electron transport chain is a complex carrier mechanism located on the inside of the __ __ __. Carrier molecules here transfer ___ ___ ____ from NADH and FADH2 to ____ to produce ___ via oxidative phosphorylation. As electrons are transferred from carrier to carrier, __ ___ is released, which is then used to form ATP.

A

inner mitochondrial membrane, high-energy potential electrons, O2, ATP, free energy

38
Q

Most molecules in the ETC are ____, electron carriers that resemble ___ in the structure of their active site. The functional unit contains a central ___ atom that is capable of undergoing a ___ ___ reaction.

A

cytochromes, hemoglobin, iron, reversible redox

39
Q

Sequential redox reactions continue to occur as the electrons are transferred from one carrier to the next; each carrier is ___ as it accepts and electron and then ___ when it passes it on to the next carrier. The last carrier of the ETC passes its electron to ____. In addition to electrons, O2 also picks up a pair of __ __ from the surrounding medium, forming water

A

reduced, oxidized, O2, hydrogen ions

40
Q

Along the ETC, the __ __ continually pump ___ ___ from the matrix of the mitochondria to the __ __, which creates a large ___ ____. At the end of the ETC, hydrogen ions pass through ___ in the respiratory enzymes ___ the concentration gradient. As they do so, the energy is released and used to convert ___ to ____.

A

respiratory enzymes, H ions, intermembrane space, concentration gradient, channels, along, ADP, ATP

41
Q

In oxidative phosphorylation, ___ pyruvate decarboxylations yield __ NADH each for a total of ___ NADH. Each turn of the citric acid cycle yields ____ NADH, and ___ FADH2, for a total of ___ NADH and ____ FADH per glucose molecule. Each FADH2 generates ___ ATP. Each NADH generates ___ ATP, except for the 2 NADH that were reduced during glycolysis. These cannot cross the __ ___ __ and must transfer their electrons to an intermediate carrier molecule, which delivers the electrons to the second carrier protein complex ___. One ATP is used in this transfer, and thus NADH generate only ___ ATP per molecule of glucose.

A

2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, inner mitochondrial membrane, Q, 2

42
Q

In total the __ NADH of glycolysis yield ___ ATP, the other eight NADH yield ___ ATP, and the two _____ produce __ ATP for a total of ___ ATP produced by oxidative phosphorylation

A

2, 4, 28, FADH2, 4

43
Q

The total amount of ATP produced during eukaryotic glucose catabolism is therefore ___ via substrate level phosphorylation plus ___ via oxidative phosphorylation, for a total of ___ ATP. For ___ this yield is ___ ATP because the two NADH of glycolysis don’t have any __ ___ to cross and therefore don’t lose energy

A

4, 32, 36, prokaryotes, 38, mitochondrial membranes

44
Q

When glucose supplies runs low, the body uses other ___, __ and ___ in preferential order. These substances are first converted to glucose or __ __, which can then be degraded in the ___ pathway and the citric acid cycle

A

carbohydrates, fats, proteins, glucose intermediates, glycolysis

45
Q

____ are hydrolyzed into ___ most of which can be converted into glucose of glycolytic intermediates. ___ stored in the liver, when needed, into a glycolytic intermediate.

A

disaccharides, monosaccharides, glycogen

46
Q

Fat molecules are stored in ____ tissue in the form of ____. When needed, they are hydrolyzed by ___ into ___ ___ and ___ and are carried by the blood to other tissues for ____. Glycerol can be converted into _____.

A

adipose, triglycerides, lipases, fatty acids, glycerol, oxidation, PGAL

47
Q

A fatty acid must first be activated in the ___, and this process requires __ ATP. Once activated the fatty acid is transported into the ____, and taken through a series of ____ cycles that convert it into ___ fragments, which are then converted into ___. This then enters the citric acid cycle. With each round of ___ of a saturated fatty acid, one ____ and one ___ are generated.

A

cytoplasm, 2, mitochondria, beta-oxidation, two-carbon, acetyl-CoA, beat-oxidation, NADH, FADH2

48
Q

Of all the high energy compounds used in cellular respiration, ___ yield the greatest ATP per gram. This makes them extremely efficient ___ ___ molecules. Thus, while the amount of glycogen stored in humans is enough.to meet ____ energy needs for about a day, the stored fat reserves can meet the ___ energy needs for about a ___

A

fats, energy storage, short-term, long-term, month

49
Q

The body degrades proteins only when not enough ___ or __ is available. Most amino acids undergo a __ ___ in which they lose an __ group to form an ____ ___. The carbon atoms of most amino acids are converted into ___, ____, or one of the intermediates of the citric acid cycle. They enter their respective ___ ___, allowing cells to produce ___ ___, ___, or energy in the form of ATP,

A

carbohydrates, fats, transamination reaction, amino, alpha-keto acid, pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, metabolic pathways, fatty acids, glucose

50
Q

__ ___ removes and ammonia molecule directly from the amino acid. ___ is a toxic substance in vertebrates. ___ can excrete it, whereas insects and ___ convert it to __ __, and mammals convert it to ___ for excretion

A

oxidative deamination, ammonia, fish, birds, uric acid, urea

50
Q

Enzymes are ___ and thus, thousands of different enzymes can be formed. Many enzymes are ___ proteins, meaning they consist of amino acids attached to other groups via _____ bonds, and have nonprotein ___. in these cases, both components much be present for the enzyme to function

A

proteins, conjugated, covalent, coenzyme

51
Q

Enzymes are very ___, they may catalyze only one reaction or one specific ___ of closely related reactions. All enzymes do not alter the __ ___, are not ___ in the reaction, and are ____ and ___ sensitive, with ____ activity at specific ranges. Most enzyme catalyzed reactions are ____. The product synthesized by an enzyme can be ___ by the same enzyme.

A

selective, class, equilibrium constant, consumed, pH, temperature, optimal, reversible, decomposed

52
Q

The theory that the spatial structure of an enzyme’s active site is exactly complementary to the spatial structure of its substrate. When the endogenous substance or drug binds to the receptor, a sequence of events is started.

A

lock and key theory

53
Q

The idea that the conformation of the active site changes to fit the substrate when the appropriate substrate comes into contact

A

induced fit theory

54
Q

In general, as the temperature increases, the rate of enzyme action ____ until an ___ temperature is reached, usually at around ____°C. Beyond this, heat alters the __ of the active site and __ it, leading to a rapid drop in the ___ of action

A

increases, optimal, 40, shape, deactivates, rate

55
Q

For each enzyme there is an optimal pH; __ and __ that, the enzymatic activity declines. Maximal activity of many human enzymes occurs around pH ___, which is the pH of most ___ ___. Exceptions include ___ which works best in the highly __ conditions of the stomach, and ___ enzymes which work optimally in the __ conditions of the small intestine. In most cases, the optimal pH matches the ___ under which the enzyme operates

A

below, above, 7.2, body fluids, pepsin, acidic, pancreatic, alkaline, environment

56
Q

When the concentrations of both enzyme and substrate are ____, many of the active sites are ___, and the reaction rate is low. Increasing the substrate concentration will ___ the reaction rate until all the active sites are ___, After this point, further increase in substrate concentration will ___ increase the reaction rate and the reaction is said to have reached the __ ___

A

low, unoccupied, increase, occupied, not, maximum velocity

57
Q

When a similar molecule is present in a concentration comparable to the concentration of the substrate and competes with it for binding sites on the enzyme

A

Competitive inhibition

58
Q

In competitive inhibition, if sufficient quantities of the substrate are introduced, the substrate can ___ the competitor and will still be able to reach ___. However, this will require very ___ concentrations of the substrate than normal

A

outcompete, Vmax, high

59
Q

Substance that forms strong covalent bonds with an enzyme, making it unable to bind with its substrate

A

noncompetitive inhibition

60
Q

A noncompetitive inhibitor ___ be displaced by addition of excess substrate. Therefore it is ___, and the reaction will never reach ___.

A

cannot, irreversible, Vmax

61
Q

When noncompetitive inhibition occurs at a site other than the active site

A

allosteric inhibition

62
Q

reactions that function to digest large molecules into smaller components (e.g. lactase, proteases, lipases)

A

hydrolysis

63
Q

In multicellular organisms, digestion can begin ___ of the cells in the ___. Other hydrolytic reactions occur ____ cells

A

outside, gut, within

64
Q

Reactions that can be catalyzed by the same enzymes as hydrolysis reactions, but the directions of the reactions are reversed

A

synthesis

65
Q

Synthesis reactions occur in __ parts of the cell and are required for __, ___, ___, ___ and __ of food reserves such as fat and glycogen by the cell. The survival of an organisms depends on its ability to ___ substances that it needs but cannot ____. Once ingested these substances are converted into ____ products. Certain ____ ___ and essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by humans, If they are not available in diet, ___ ___ will occur

A

various, growth, repair, regulation, protection, production, ingest, synthesize, useful, vitamin cofactors, deficiency diseases

66
Q

Many enzymes require the incorporation of a ___ ___ to become active. These molecules called ___ can be___ ____ such as __ or ___ or small __ __ called coenzymes. Most coenzymes cannot be synthesized by the body and are obtained from the diet as ____ derivatives. Cofactors that bind to the enzyme by strong covalent bonds are called ___ groups.

A

nonprotein molecule, cofactors, metal cations, Zn2+, Fe2+, organic groups, vitamin, prosthetic

DAT Biology (16 decks)

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