memory2 Flashcards
1
Q
who proposed the msm
A
atkinson and shiffrin
2
Q
what goes into the sensory register
A
a stimulus from the environment picked up on by one the 5 senses: sight, smell, touch, taste, sound
3
Q
what are the two main stores in the sensory register
A
iconic and echoic
4
Q
what are the three stores in the msm
A
sensory register -> STM -> LTM
5
Q
how does information go from the sensory register to the stm
A
through attention !
6
Q
how does information transfer from the stm to the ltm (msm)
A
prolonged maintenance rehearsal
7
Q
how does information come back into the stm from the ltm (msm)
A
retrieval loop
8
Q
how long does material last in the sensory register (duration of the sensory register)
A
less than 1/2 a second
9
Q
what is the capacity in the sensory register
A
high! eg there are over 100 million cells in one eye that each store data
10
Q
describe the coding/capacity/duration of the sensory register
A
the coding of the sensory register is modality specific. information that enters the sensory register is based on the 5 senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, smell. these are picked up as stimuli in the environment and are barely noticed by us but are carried into the stm if we pay attention to them.
the capacity of the sensory register is very large. for example, our eyes have over 100 million cells each that all store information.
the duration of the sensory register is very limited - less than 1/2 a second unless we pay attention to the stimulus.
11
Q
how is the stm coded and how is the ltm coded
A
stm is coded acoustically and ltm is coded semnatically
12
Q
what is the capacity of the stm
A
7+/-2
13
Q
what is the capacity of the ltm
A
unlimited
14
Q
what is the duration of stm
A
18-30 seconds
15
Q
what is the duration of ltm
A
unlimited
16
Q
how can the capacity of stm be improved
A
chunking
17
Q
how can the duration of stm be improved
A
rehearsal
18
Q
AO3 for the MSM
A
POS - case study of HM -> from this POS: idiographic, NEG: idiographic
POS - research evidence shows the stm and ltm as distinctively different (baddeley, jacobs, miller, peterson and peterson, bahrick)
NEG - much of this research (see above) uses artificial tasks, lacks mundane realism, low in ecological validity, so limited application to real-world use of memory
NEG - the WMM provides a better explanation
NEG - being a cognitive model, it could be accused of machine reductionism and that the human mind cannot be reduced to something so simplistic
19
Q
what was wrong with HM
A
epilepsy
20
Q
what procedure did HM undergo
A
brain surgery that removed his hippocampus
21
Q
what could HM remember and what couldn’t he remember
A
could remember events and details from before the surgery (LTM) but could not form new memories (STM)
22
Q
what is negative/positive about the case of HM being a case study
A
it is idiographic and so it is dependent upon one person. this means that it is hard to generalise the experience of one person to the rest of the population. however, the strength of a case study is that it is holistic as it provides a more global understanding of the person. it presents behaviours that might not otherwise have been uncovered.
23
Q
who conducted research into coding
A
baddeley
24
Q
how many conditions in baddeley’s coding study
A
4 conditions
1. acoustically similar
2. acoustically dissimilar
3. semantically similar
4. semantically dissimilar
25
what were ppts in baddeley's study asked to do with their list of words
recall it in the correct order
26
what results did baddeley find in coding study
when ppts were asked to recall words immediately after hearing them (testing stm), recall was worse for words that were acoustically similar. after 20 minutes, recall was worse for words that were semantically similar.
27
conclusion of baddeley coding study
stm is coded acoustically and ltm is coded semantically
28
what did jacobs study
capacity of stm
29
what was jacobs procedure
he kept increasing digits until the ppts could no longer recall them in the correct order
30
what averages did jacobs find ppts could remeber - letters and numbers
letters - 7.3
numbers - 9.3
31
how did miller reach his conclusion
observation of the everyday world using empirical methods - things often come in 7s (musical scale, sins, days of the week)
32
what conclusion did miller reach on the capacity of stm
7+/-2
33
how did miller suggest we can improve stm
chunking
34
who researched duration of stm
peterson and peterson
35
what was peterson and petersons sample size
24 undergrads
36
how many trials did p&p ppts participate in
8 trials
37
what were ppts given in p&p study
a trigram and 3 digit number
38
what were ppts instructed to do with trigram and 3 digit number in p&p study
remember number! and to count back from the three digit number for 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18.
39
why were ppts told to count in p&p study
retention interval - prevents mental rehearsal
40
what did p&p conclude the duration of stm was
18-30 seconds
41
who conducted research into duration of ltm
bahrick
42
what was bahricks sample size
392
43
where was bahricks sample from
ohio
44
how old was bahricks sample
17-74
45
what two types of recall was bahrick testing
1. photo recognition
2. free recall
46
when ppts left high school less than 15 years ago, what were their results on photo recognition and free recall
photo recognition - 90%
free recall - 60%
47
when ppts left high more than 48 years ago, what were their results on photo recognition and free recall
photo recognition - 70%
free recall - 30%
48
AO3 of research into coding/capacity/duration
NEG - artificial stimuli in baddeleys, p&ps and jacobs study! means lack of mundane realism, low ecological validity and so low application to the real-world
POS - the studies that had meaningful stimuli are higher in ecological validity and so can be applied to the real world! this is bahricks, and millers studies
NEG - bahricks study involves high school year books, some were obtained from the high schools directly and some from the person. the people who owned their year book could have looked at it across the years which means they could have rehearsed and been more familiar with the names
NEG - jacobs study is lacking in temporal validity. it was conducted in 1887. so there was a lack of scientific method and confounding variables may as well have been present such as a noisy room or conducting the experiment at different times of day with different ppts. and so the overall reliability is lowered
NEG - there has been recent research evidence against miller going against his conclusion on 7+/2. this suggests that the figure is more close to 4 chunks.
49
who suggested the types of ltm
tulving
50
what are the 3 types of ltm
procedural, semantic, episodic
51
what is the easiest type of ltm to forget
episodic
52
what is the hardest type of ltm to forget
procedural
53
what is procedural ltm
know-how, muscle memory, eg how to ride a bike
54
what is semantic ltm
facts, knowledge-that, eg henry viii had six wives
55
what is episodic ltm
memories of life events, eg what you had for dinner last night or your 16th birthday party
56
time-stamped or not? types of ltm
episodic - time-stamped
semantic - not time-stamped
procedural - not time-stamped
57
which type of ltm is autobiographical
episodic
58
role of conscious in types of ltm
episodic - conscious effort to recall
semantic - conscious effort to recall
procedural - NOT conscious effort to recall
59
what are some criteria that ltm can be measured with
- autobiographical
- conscious or non-conscious
- time-stamped
60
what two case studies can be used for AO3
clive wearing and HM
61
what did clive wearing suffer from before and after his surgery
before - virus of the brain
after - retrograde amnesia
62
what kind of ltm was clive wearing able to retain and what wasn't he able to
was able to retain procedural (he could play the piano), but he couldn't retain episodic (when he learnt to play the piano)
63
how does HM back up different types of ltm
his episodic memory was affected but his semantic and procedural were not
64
AO3 for types of ltm
POS - Clive Wearing
POS - HM
POS/NEG - idiographic case study
POS - brain scans
65
how do brain scans provide AO3 support for different types of ltm
localisation of function, there are different types of ltm in different parts of the brain EG episodic = hippocampus, semantic = temporal lobe
66
why are brain scans useful
they are objective and so high in reliability
67
who put forward the working memory model
baddeley and hitch
68
why were baddeley and hitch unhappy with the msm
they saw it as too simplistic AS the STM is not unitary and they believed that the stm must be an active processor
69
name all the components of the wmm
central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop, episodic buffer and ltm
70
what is the wmm concerned with
the part of the mind that is active when temporarily storing and manipulating information
71
what is the role of the CE
attentional process that monitors incoming data, it makes decisions and allocates the slave systems
72
what does the CE focus its attention on
the most important task in the moment
73
what is the processing capacity of the CE
limited - it cannot store information
74
what does the phonological loop do
deals w/ auditory information and preserves the order it arrives in
75
what are the two subdivisions in the phonological loop
phonological store and articulatory process
76
what does the phonological store do
stores spoken/heard words
77
what does the articulatory process do
allows maintenance rehearsal - keeping the words in the working memory while they are needed
78
what is the capacity of the articulatory process
2 seconds worth of what you can say
79
what is the role of the vss
to store visual/spatial information
80
what is an example of using the vss
if asked to work out how many windows in a house, then you visualise it
81
what is the capacity of the vss according to who
3-4 items, baddeley
82
who subdivided the vss
logie
83
what is the vss subdivided into
the visual cache and the inner scribe
84
what is the role of the visual cache
it stores visual data eg colour and shape
85
what is the role of the inner scribe
it records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
86
when was the episodic buffer introduced
2000
87
what is the role of the episodic buffer
it is a temporary store of information, it receives information from the CE, PL, VSS and integrates it into episodes so that it is time-sequenced
88
what is the capacity of the episodic buffer
4 chunks
89
AO3 for wmm
POS - KF (case study by Shallice and Warrington), NEG - idiographic
POS - dual-task performance backed up by POS - Baddeley study
NEG - lack of clarity over central executive
90
give an example of dual-task performance that works and one that doesn't
one that works is driving and listening to music, one that doesn't is reading a book and having a conversation
91
who conducted research into dual-performance
baddeley
92
what task did baddeley give ppts to test dual-performance
ppts were to perform a digit span task (repeating a list of numbers) and a verbal reasoning task (T/F) at the same time
93
results of baddeley dual-performance task
as the number of digits increased, this increased the time it took for ppts to answer the true or false question
94
what could KF process and what couldn't he
he could process verbal information (STM) but not auditory information (STM) which meant that his phonological loop was damaged but his visuo-spatial sketchpad was intact
95
what is the problem with studying kf
case study, idiographic, hard to generalise to the wider population, low application to the real world
96
why is there a lack of clarity over the central executive
it is unsatisfactory and doesn't add a lot to the model, it is undetailed, it is also hard to operationalise and measure
97
what did baddeley say about the CE
it is the most important and least understood part of the whole model
98
what are the two types of forgetting
interference and retrieval failure
99
how secure is information when it reaches your ltm
it is more or less permanent
100
what is 'forgetting' according to interference theory
not getting access to information in the ltm, interference makes it harder to locate memories
101
what are the two types of interference
proactive and retroactive
102
what is proactive interference
when old interferes with the new
103
what is retroactive interference
when new interferes with the old
104
how do effects of similarity link into interference theory of forgetting
interference is worse when memories are similar
105
researchers for effects of similarity
mcgeoch and mcdonald
106
what type of interference did mcgeoch and mcdonald study
retroactive
107
procedure of mcgeoch and mcdonald study
changed the similarity between two sets of material, ppts learn set of 10 words until they 100% know them and then are introduced to a new list, this new list had 6 conditions incl:
- synonyms
- antonyms
- consonant syllables etc.
108
what list produced the worst recall in mcgeoach and mcdonald study and conclusion of this
synonyms - interference was the strongest when memories were similar
109
AO3 for interference as an explanation for forgetting
POS - real-life application through baddeley and hitch study on interference with rugby players
POS - mcgeoach and mcdonald study was a lab study
NEG - mcgeoach and mcdonald study was artificial, low in mundane realism, low in ecological validity and so unable to generalise to everyday life ALSO interference may be more likely in the lab where ppts are under pressure to recall
110
what were rugby players asked to recall
names of teams they had played against over one season
111
what was found in rugby study
players who had played in the most games had the worst recall, a players recall of a team from 3 weeks ago was better if they had played no matches since
112
what type of interference does rugby study support
retroactive
113
what is the basis of retrieval failure
when information is initially placed in memory, the associated cues are stored at the same time, if these cues are not available at the time of recall it may appear as if you have forgotten something but this is actually retrieval failure
114
what does esp stand for
encoding specificity principle
115
who proposed the esp
tulving
116
what does the esp state
if a cue is to help us recall information it has to be present at encoding and retrieval, and we will forget if it is not
117
what are the two types of retrieval failure
context and state dependent forgetting
118
who studied context dependent forgetting
godden and baddeley
119
who was the sample of godden and baddleys study
deep sea divers
120
why were deep sea divers chosen as the sample
their job requires for it to be important to remember information
121
what were the 4 conditions in godden and baddeley study
learn underwater, recall underwater
learn underwater, recall on land
learn on land, recall on land
learn on land, recall underwater
122
findings of godden and baddeley study
accurate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions
123
researcher for state dependent forgetting
goodwin
124
what was goodwins procedure
male ppts were to learn a set of words drunk/sober and were asked to recall them 24 hours later when drunk/sober again
125
goodwin findings
information was recalled better when under the same state - sober/sober, drunk/drunk
126
AO3 for retrieval failure
POS - real-life application, if you forget what you are getting downstairs you can go back upstairs and it will come to you, if you chew gum when studying and again when you are sitting the exam recall in theory should be better, ALSO applies to cognitive interview
POS - there is research support for goodwin, similar study was conducted with anti-histamine drugs
NEG - goodwin study lacking mundane realism, artificial, low ecological validity, hard to generalise
NEG - recall v recognition: godden and baddeley replicate underwater study using recognition test instead of recall test and found no context dependent effect
127
how does research into context-dependent forgetting influence the cognitive interview
one step of the CI is to reinstate the context - this can trigger forgotten memories
128
what are the three things that effect EWT
leading questions, post-event discussion, anxiety
129
who conducted research into leading questions
loftus and palmer
130
what was loftus and palmer procedure
ppts watched film clips of cars and were asked a number of questions, then they were asked a critical question - 'how fast was the car...?'
131
what different words were used for loftus and palmer study
hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed
132
what was the lowest mean estimate and for what word - l&p
collided - 31.8 MPH
133
what was the highest mean estimate and for what word - l&p
smashed - 40.5 MPH
134
what are the two explanations for answers of leading questions
1. response bias
2. substitution explanation
135
explain response bias
no effect on memory but influences how the ppts now want to answer
136
explain substitution explanation
changes memory!
137
what is the further evidence for substitution explanation
on a questionnaire, ppts with more extreme words in critical question are more likely to report broken glass when there wasn't any
138
what does misleading information consist of
leading questions and post-event discussion
139
researcher for post-event discussion
gabbert
140
what was gabberts procedure
he studied ppts in pairs - one watched one perspective of a video and the other another so that they could see different elements eg one could see a book title and the other couldn't, then ppts were able to discuss their answers and then recalled what they had seen
141
gabbert findings
71% of ppts mistakenly recalled aspects of event that they had picked up on from their partner in discussion
142
results of gabbert control
0% reported other details
143
gabbert conclusion
witnesses go along with each other to win social approval and because they believe other ppts are right or they are wrong
144
AO3 for leading questions
POS - real-world application
POS - supporting evidence that childhood memories can be altered or falsified
NEG - lack ecological validity - less stress/less motivation/not serious
NEG - doesn't account for individual differences
145
how do leading questions have real-world application
they can be applied to the legal field and criminal justice system, they are important to the accuracy of the CI and making sure justice is served to the right people ALSO led to development of CI
146
how does research into leading questions not account for individual differences
some people are aware of them and can avoid them
OR
there is research to suggest that age groups are more accurate in EWT when the research is of their own age group so this is also to be taken into consideration
147
AO3 of post event discussion
POS - lab study
NEG - low ecological validity
POS - two different populations
POS - led to CI
148
why is it positive ao3 that gabbert used two different populations
he used students and older adults so he had high population validity and therefore his results can be generalised to the whole population
149
researchers for anxiety having negative effect on recall
johnson and scott
150
why would anxiety have a negative effect on anxiety
the physiological arousal in the body prevents us from paying attention to certain cues
151
what was johnson and scott procedure
led ppts to believe they were taking part in a lab study and sat them in a 'waiting room', while in there, in next room heard argument and man walks through waiting room, then asked to identify man from line up
152
what were the two conditions in johnson and scott study
low anxiety and high anxiety
153
what was the low anxiety condition
man walked through waiting area carrying pen with grease on his hands
154
what was high anxiety condition
window broke, carrying knife and blood on his hands
155
how many photos did ppts have to pick from in johnson and scott study
50
156
what percent identified the man in the high anxiety condition and the low anxiety condition
high anxiety - 49%
low anxiety - 33%
157
how can the results of the johnson and scott procedure be explained
tunnel theory and weapon focus
158
who are the researchers for the positive effect of anxiety
yuille and cutshall
159
why would anxiety have a positive effect on ewt
stress leads to anxiety which leads to physiological arousal, this invokes the fight-or-flight response and increases alertness and memory as there is more awareness of cues
160
what/who did yuille and cutshall study
a real life shooting in gun shop in vancouver where a shop owner shot a thief dead, there were 21 witnesses and 13 agreed to participate
161
how long after the incident did y&c conduct their interviews
4-5 months
162
what did y&c do with their interview
compare it to the original police interviews
163
how did y&c measure accuary
number of details reported in each account
164
what else were y&c witnesses asked
to rate their stress at the time on a 7 point scale and were asked if they had any emotional problems since the event such as sleeplessness
165
y&c findings
witnesses were very accurate! some details were less accurate such as colours/age/height/weight
166
% accuracy of high stress and low stress in y&c
high stress - 88%
low stress - 75%
167
researchers for explaining contradictory findings in anxiety on ewt
yerkes and dodson
168
what graph shape did they propose and label
inverted u, relationship between arousal and performance
169
explain yerkes-dodson graph
low levels of arousal are associated with low levels of performance, as one increases so does the other, then it reaches an optimum, after this arousal continues to increase but performance begins to fall
170
AO3 for anxiety as an explanation for forgetting
NEG - weapon focus may test surprise
