RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards
1
Q
what are extraneous variables
A
any other unwanted variable that might potentially interfere with the IV or DV, they muddy the experiment and make it harder to detect a result
2
Q
when are extraneous variables identified
A
at the start of the study by the researcher who then takes steps to minimise their influence
3
Q
examples of extraneous variables
A
age of ppts, lighting in the lab
4
Q
what is a confounding variable
A
a variable that confounds the results of the study as they do change systematically with the IV
5
Q
ex. of confounding variable
A
personality - this could form its own iv if two groups in a study just so happened to be one introverted, one extroverted
6
Q
what is an investigator effect
A
any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome
7
Q
what are the four types of experiment
A
lab, field, natural, quasi
8
Q
what are the five main types of sampling
A
random, systematic, stratified, opportunity and volunteer
9
Q
what does the aim do
A
identifies the purpose of the research
10
Q
what is a hypothesis
A
a testable statement written as a prediction of what the researcher expects to find as a result of their experiment
11
Q
what are the two types of hypothesis
A
null and alternative
12
Q
what are the two types of alternative hypothesis
A
directional and non-directional
13
Q
what tail test is a directional hypothesis
A
one-tailed
14
Q
what tail test is a non-directional hypothesis
A
two tailed
15
Q
what idea does the null hypothesis start with
A
the iv will not affect the dv
16
Q
what is the difference between writing a hypothesis for a correlational investigation as opposed to an experimental one
A
instead of using the term ‘difference’ you have to use the term ‘relationship/correlation’
17
Q
what is an extraneous variable and give examples
A
any factors that intrude upon and adversely affect the dv EG time of day, temperature, mood
18
Q
what is a confounding variable
A
can affect the dv and negatively impact the research findings
19
Q
explain how time of day acts as an extraneous variable and turns into a confounding variable
A
as an extraneous variable, the experiment could be conducted at 7am. people who consider themselves early birds may be more alert at this time and therefore perform the task better. this means many of the other ppts are still drowsy and will not be able to concentrate as fully as they usually can. and so the results are confounded since the ppts are not having their true ability measured.
20
Q
where should the researcher acknowledge the presence of confounding variables
A
the discussion section of the psychological report
21
Q
examples of demand characteristics
A
ppts picking up on cues and working out the aim, the procedure setting, any form of communication, ppts behaving in dif. ways to researcher
22
Q
one way of controlling demand characteristics
A
single-blind procedure so ppts do not know which condition they have been assigned to therefore they are not able to respond according to what they think is being tested in that condition
23
Q
how to control for investigator effects
A
double blind procedure so that ppts and researcher do not know which condition each ppts has been assigned to and so no BIAS during procedure and analysis
24
Q
what are pilot studies
A
small-scale trials that are run to test some or all aspects of the proposed investigation
25
what flaws can be picked up in pilot studies
flaws in design, ethical issues, feasibility issues, test for reliability and validity
26
why are lab experiments good
exert high control over the experimental process - limits possible extraneous variables - the effects of the iv upon the dv can be observed and measured. standardised procedure - replicable - reliable.
SO
- easier to establish cause-effect relationship BECAUSE of high control and objectivity and so high in internal validity!
27
what is negative about lab studies
artificial tasks - low in ecological validity - the findings are hard to generalise.
demand characteristics - limits generalisability - lowers external validity.
28
strengths of field experiment
less artificial - demonstrates behaviour in a real setting - high in external validity - more generalisable.
less demand characteristics - relaxed and natural environment - validity.
29
limitations of field exps.
more extraneous variables - reliability reduced.
difficult to replicate - lack of standardisation - reduces ability to check for consistency - lessens reliability.
30
natural experiments and iv
researcher cannot manipulate iv
31
ex. of natural experiments
war zone, suffering from specific mental illness, surviving a plane crash
32
strengths of natural
- allows researchers to investigate topics otherwise unable to as unethical so high in ethical validity
- high in ecological validity, elevates mundane realism
33
limitations of natural study
- casual relationships difficult to determine, no controls on procedure, reduces reliability
- suffer from bias - social desirability, confirmation bias and sample bias
34
what type of data does independent groups generate
unrelated data
35
strengths of independent groups design
- demand characteristics unlikely to act as confounding variable - ppts only take part in one condition and so are less likely to guess the aim of the study - this increases internal validity
- order effects are eliminated - ppts will not become tired/bored/overly practiced - this increases validity.
36
limitations of independent measures
- more ppts are needed - financial implications - and it means that each condition has a lower no. which affects reliability and generalisability due to small sample size
37
what type of data does repeated measures generate
related data
38
how do researchers avoid order effects in repeated measures
counterbalancing
39
what is counterbalancing
researcher splits ppts in half, eg 20 in one group and 20 in another - half do a then b, other half do b then a
40
ex of matched pairs study
maguire
41
what type of data does matched pairs produce
related
42
the sample used in psychological research is taken from a...
target population
43
strengths of random sampling
- eliminates researcher bias
- study results should be representative so findings can be generalised
44
limitations of random sampling
- time-consuming and impractical
- non-representative sample eg an all male sample could be selected
45
what is systematic sampling
picking every nth person
46
how is the sampling interval calculated
dividing the population size by the required sample size (population=100,000, sample of 2500 is required so 100,000/2500=40, so every 40th person is selected)
47
systematic sampling economic
quick, easy, cost-effective so popular with funding bodies
48
biggest limitation of systematic sampling
hidden periodic trait - every nth house could be a corner house and so unrepresentative
49
what is stratified sampling
small-scale reproduction of population - population divided and categorised according to key characteristics required by research eg age/gender/education level/ethnicity/profession
- PROPORTIONAL
50
what should be mentioned as part of informed consent
- detailed info on task to be able to make informed decision:
- nature of task
- timings and length of task
- warned of hazards
51
3 alternative ways of gaining consent
- prior general consent: ppts agree to be deceived but do not know how
- presumptive consent: consent gained from those w/ similar background to ppts so assume
- retrospective consent: informed consent after research has taken place
52
when and who is peer review carried out
when - before the research is published
who - by other experts in the field
53
aims of peer review
- assess the appropriateness of the research to the research topic/aim
- check validity of findings
- judge significance of research
- check that he research is original and has not been plagiarised
- suggest recommendations and amendments
54
what 4 outcomes can be reached as a result of peer review
1. accept work unconditionally
2. accept work as long as researcher makes specific improvements/amendments
3. reject work but suggestions for resubmission
4. reject work outright
55
what are the three types of peer review
- open review
- single blind
- double blind
56
which type of peer review is believed to reduce plagiarism
open review
57
what can psychological research be the springboard for
social change, adoption of new ideas and modification of some existing ideas and practices
58
ex of naturalistic observation
festinger - infiltration of a doomsday cult, mingled among cult members and secretly recorded their observations in note form
59
what is the hawthorne effect
when a ppts behaviour changes as a result of being observed rather than as a result of natural conditions
60
ex. of covert observation
rosenhan observation of staff and patients several mental hospitals and faking symptoms
61
when would a structured observation be chosen
when observing large samples in busy environments where many different behaviours are likely to occur! structured allows researcher to observe a few specific, clearly defined behaviours rather than trying to make sense of too much information
62
what type of data is gathered under structured observation
quantitative
63
what does quantitative data lack
explanatory power - shed light on what was observed but not why that behaviour occurred
64
when would an unstructured observation be chosen
when observing small samples in more intimate environments where interpersonal interaction is the focus of observation
65
for what type of research is an unstructured study good to use
case studies
66
how do you know if there is good inter-observer reliability
there is a strong correlation between the sets
67
what is the test retest method
giving the same ppts the same questions on two occasions and seeing if there is a positive correlation between the results
68
why must a researcher consider length of a questionnaire
too short won't generate enough data and too long could mean ppts may become bored or answer without care or full attention
69
qualities of questions in a questionnaire
clear, unambiguous, on-topic
70
what should be avoided when writing good questions
leading questions, emotional elements, being overly technical, double-barrelled, double negatives
71
when would an interview be chosen
- when the researcher wishes to understand how people feel about issues, or as part of a larger case study into the unique experience of one ppts/small group
72
features of a structured interview
- pre-prepared closed or open questions
- ppts responses written down or recorded
- researcher does not veer from script
- quantitative data and qualitative data
73
features of an unstructured interview
- no pre-prepared questions
- open mind to proceeding of interview
- researcher writes down or records ppts responses
- treated as convo
- freedom
- qualitative data only
74
what should be considered when designing an interview
- safe environment where happy to disclose info
- establish rapport so relaxed and trust
- ppts given consent form
- reliable way of recording notes
- questions must be clear, coherent and on-topic
- researcher must not pass judgement or make ppts feel uncomfortable
75
what is a correlation
an analysis of the relationship between co-variables
76
how are correlations plotted
scattergraph
77
what are the three types of correlation
positive, negative, zero
78
what does the correlation coefficient represent
the direction and strength of the relationship between the co-variables
79
how is the correlation coefficient expressed
as a value between -1 and +1
80
what are a perfect positive and negative coeffcient expressed as
perf pos - +1
PERF NEG - -1
81
how can coefficients be described
weak, moderate or strong
82
what is a meta analysis
a quantitative research method which takes data from published studies, research is combined from multiple studies to draw an overall conclusion about the topic
83
how are the results of a meta analysis expressed
effect size - which refers to strength of relationship between two variables on numerical scale
84
why is a meta analysis useful
it allows to see patterns otherwise not seen in individual studies
85
what does content analysis do
analyses qualitative data by turning it into quantitative data
86
how does a content analysis quantify qualitative data
the use of coding
87
ex of the data used in content analysis
spoken interactions or written word or media content such as transcripts or a screenplay
88
what is the aim of content analysis
to summarise the main ideas presented in the spoken or written material via structured methods to conclude the data
89
describe how coding works in content analysis
- assigning each behaviour to a code that can be analysed numerically
1. researcher formulates research question
2. select sample of pre-existing qualitative data sources
3. researcher decides on coding of the categories
4. researcher works through data using tally
5. researcher then tests for reliability via: test-retest, inter-rater reliability
90
ex. of content analysis
waynforth and dunbar - lonely hearts adverts - what do men and women look for?
91
how many adverts did waynforth and dunbar look at
881
92
what do men and women look for waynforth and dunbar content analysis
men - younger women, cite resources > attractiveness
women - older males, mention attractiveness more than resources
93
what is thematic analysis
method used to analyse qualitative data
94
what is a theme
any feature of the data which recurs throughout
95
describe how thematic analysis occurs
- researcher familiarises themselves with the data by reading it over and over again
- themes within the data emerge ie patterns, repeated or common ideas or concepts
- the researcher reviews these themes and patterns to see if they can explain behaviour and answer the research question
- the researcher then categorises and defines each theme EG 'people in their 20s often refer to lack of savings and high rent as obstacles to house-buying'
- this analysis is written up into their formal report
96
what is triangulation
involves using more than one method in the same study
97
when is reliability achieved
if a study has been set up so that the iv can be seen to affect the dv
98
what does validity measure
the extent to which the findings of a study are representative ie real
99
what is a measure of dispersion
calculates the spread of scores and how much they vary in terms of how distant they are from the mean or median
100
what will a data set with low dispersion look like
will have scores that cluster around the measure of central tendency
101
what will a data set with high dispersion look like
will have scores that are spread apart from the central measure with much variation among them
102
what does standard deviation calculate
how a set of scores deviates from the mean
103
what does s.d provide insight into
how clustered or spread out the scores are from the mean
104
what does a low s.d mean
the scores are clustered tightly around the mean which indicates the reliability of the data set
105
what does a high s.d indicate
the scores are more spread out from the mean and so lower reliability
106
how to calculate s.d
1. calculate mean
2. subtract mean from each score in data set
3. square scores which have been calculated at step 2
4. add all squared scores
5. divide total squared scores by number of scores minus 1
6. work out square root of variance
107
what is primary data
collected at source, not previously published
108
what is secondary data
consists of any research findings/results which are pre-existing, not original data
109
what is the most basic level of measurement
nominal data
110
what is nominal data
categories
111
describe nominal data
very little detailed information or insight as it is a head-count, only tells the researcher how many people are in a group or how many times a specific behaviour occured
112
what is ordinal data
used when the ppts scores can be arranged in order eg 1st, 2nd, 3rd
113
what level of measurement in interval data
most sensitive and sophisticated LOM
114
interva data - there is an equal interval between...
each unit of measurement
115
what type of data does a bar chart deal with
categorical data which does not necessarily fall into any particular order
116
what is the difference between a bar chart and a histogram
bars have gaps
117
what is on the y-axis of a histogram
frequency
118
what type of data does a histogram show
continuous data
119
what shape is a normal distribution
bell/ inverse u
120
what order are the measures of central tendency on a positive skew
mode median mean
121
what order are the measures of central tendency on a negative skew
mean median mode
122
ex of positively skewed data
the age at which people take on their first job, in a population aged 16-80 most scores will likely be at the lower end of the measure
123
ex of a negative skew
age at which people retire - in a population age 16-80 most scores will likely be at the higher end of the scale
124
name the features of a science
- theory construction
- hypothesis testing
- empirical method
- paradigm and paradigm shifts
- replicability
- objectivity
- falsifiability
125
what is a theory
a set of principles that intend to explain certain behaviours or events
126
what two qualities must a hypothesis be
objective and measurable
127
what is a paradigm
a set of shared assumptions and methods within a particular discipline which distinguishes science from non-science
128
when does a paradigm shift occur
when a field of study moves forward through a scientific revolution, mass shift of view
129
ex. of paradigm shift in psychology
psychoanalysis -> behaviourism -> cognitive approach -> cognitive neuroscience
130
what is objectivity
must strive to keep any personal, subjective or partial features or elements out of research process
131
what is falsifiability
the ability of a theory to be found wrong, emphasis on testing the theory
132
what are the sections of a scientific report
abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, referencing
133
describe the abstract
- short summary
- 150-200 words
- includes aim, hypothesis, method/procedure, results and conclusions
134
how do abstracts help other psychologists
when researching a particular topic, psychologists will often read lots of abstracts in order to identify experiments/investigations/studies that are worthy of further examination
135
what is included in the introduction
a literature review of general area of investigation detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study
136
how does the introduction conclude
by stating what the aim of the study is followed by the experimental hypothesis and the null hypothesis
137
why should the method in a scientific report include sufficient detail
so that another can replicate if they wish
138
what is included as part of the method
design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics
139
what is included in the results of a scientific report
- key findings of study
- likely to feature descriptive statistics
140
why do researchers need to reference in scientific report
to avoid accusations of plagiarism
