Memory- leading questions, post event discusion, anxiety

Question 1

If you witness a crime and then you hear about this e.g. on the news (TV / Radio) or even just conversation, how would this effects your memory and what is this an example of

Answer 1

This could contaminate the original memory of events.
As this new information, may interfere with your memory of the original event, the accuracy of your memory could get called into Q.
- Retroactive interference

Question 2

How can conformity link to inaccuracies in post event discussion

Answer 2

Due to powerful forces many EW have a desire to be both correct (ISI) and accepted (NSI)
If the EW was to hear other testimonies, especially from people similar to themselves or those with superior knowledge, they could potentially change their testimony consciously or unconsciously

Question 3

How can repeat interviewing effect EWT

Answer 3

Due to the reconstructive nature of memory, many psychologists believe that repeated interviewing could potentially damage the original memory of events.
Interviewed by the Police, potentially more than once, and then in a court of law could create subtle differences in recall of events

Question 4

What did Gabbert et al find

Answer 4

71% recalled aspects of the video they had not seen but had DISCUSSED.
In a control group who had no discussion 0% recalled additional details they had not seen
This was probably due to wanting social approval (NSI) or believing the other Pt was correct (ISI)

Question 4

What did Gabbert et al do

Answer 4

Pt’s in pairs, but each watch a video of same crime but from different angles, meaning each could see elements that the other couldn’t (e.g. only one could see the title of a book being carried by a young lady)
Discussed what they saw, then had quick recall test

Question 5

Evaluation, evidence
Gabbert
- PED

Answer 5

P- Pt’s in pairs, but each watch a video of same crime but from different angles, meaning each could see elements that the other couldn’t (e.g. only one could see the title of a book being carried by a young lady)

E- Discussed what they saw, then had quick recall test
71% recalled aspects of the video they had not seen but had DISCUSSED.
In a control group who had no discussion 0% recalled additional details they had not seen

L-This was probably due to wanting social approval (NSI) or believing the other Pt was correct (ISI)

Question 6

Evaluation, low ecological validity
- PED

Answer 6

Done in a lab, artificial, lack of mundane realism etc

Question 7

Evaluation, practical applications
- PED

Answer 7

P - This area of EWT research could potentially improve the accuracy of EWT and validate tactics for the Police

E- E.g. try to keep all EW apart as much as possible
E.g. try to reduce the number of times you question EW

L- This suggests research into post event information could help improve the Criminal justice system

Question 8

Evaluation, doesn’t take into account individual differences
- PED

Answer 8

P- One problem with research into post event information affecting the accuracy of EWT is that it may not take into account other factors that could affect the accuracy of EWT.

E- For example, individual differences. It has been found that older people were less accurate than younger people at giving EWT. Also all age groups are more accurate when identifying people of their own age. Research studies often use younger people to be identified and therefore some age groups may appear less accurate but in fact this is not true.

L-This implies that individual differences may affect the results of research into post event discussion.

Question 9

What is an EWT

Answer 9

The ability of people to remember the details of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed. Accuracy of EWT can be affected by factors such as misleading information, leading questions and anxiety.

Question 10

What are leading questions

Answer 10

A question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer.

Question 11

Who was the sample in Loftus and Palmer’s research

Answer 11

45 students

Question 12

What did Loftus and Palmer do

Answer 12

Watched film clips of car accidents and then gave them questions about the accident.
Critical question: ‘About how fast were the cars going when they …. each other?’
Five conditions of the IV - each given a different verb in the critical question:
Hit / contacted / bumped / collided / smashed
They then recorded the speed estimates given by the ppts and calculated an average speed estimate for each verb.

Question 13

What were the 5 conditions

Answer 13

A different verb
Hit / contacted / bumped / collided / smashed

Question 14

What did Loftus and Palmer find

Answer 14

The verbs that suggest the cars were travelling at a higher speed (e.g., smashed) had a higher speed estimate than the verbs that suggested the cars were travelling at a slower speed (e.g., contacted).

Question 15

What was the mean estimation of speed when the verb was ‘contacted’

Answer 15

31.4 mph

Question 16

What was the mean estimation of speed when the verb was ‘smashed’

Answer 16

40.8 mph

Question 17

Evaluation, issue with research’s sample
- Leading questions

Answer 17

P- One issue with RESEARCH into leading questions affecting the accuracy of EWT is that typically the research was conducted on students. This creates problems generalising to the target population because…

E- Students may not be representative of the whole population. For instance, university students usually have an above average intelligence level and their memories may be more efficient because of this. Also, they tend to be of a younger age, and research has shown memory ability declines in older age, so we are not fully representing memory ability across age groups.

L- This means that study is limited in how far it can be used to explain the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT as the findings cannot be generalised to everyone.

Question 18

Evaluation, practical applications
- Leading questions

Answer 18

P- The research findings into the effects of leading questions on accuracy of EWT are strengthened by the fact that the research has led to useful PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS for society.

E- Research into leading questions has contributed to the development of the ‘enhanced cognitive interview’ used by the Police. This helps to reduce errors made by EWs by eliminating the use of leading questions as well as allowing the witness to initially report everything without interruption. Kohnken et al (1999) reviewed 53 studies and found this interview procedure led to a 34% increase in correct information.

L- This implies… that research into leading questions has had tangible effects in society by benefitted criminal investigations.

Question 19

Evaluation, internal validity
- Leading questions

Answer 19

P- One strength of research into leading questions is that most research in this area is well controlled LABORATORY experiments giving the research high INTERNAL VALIDITY. This means that we have increased confidence that it is the IV, not any EXTRANEOUS variables that is responsible for any changes in the DV.

E- For example, in the Loftus & Palmer experiment the IV was the verb given to the participants (smashed, collided, hit, bumped or contacted) within the critical question ‘About how fast were the cars going when they … each other’, which affected & changed the DV which was the estimation of the speed of the cars in mph. This means we can make statements about cause & EFFECT.

L- This means… the validity of the research strengthens the support it provides for the theory, making the theory that leading questions impact the accuracy of EWT more credible.

Question 20

Evaluation, external validity
- Leading questions

Answer 20

P- A weakness of the research used to investigate the effect of leading questions on EWT is that, because they are often LABORATORY experiments, they can be seen as being low in EXTERNAL validity.

E-This is because they take place in artificial and CONTROLLED settings that do not necessarily reflect REAL LIFE behaviour, like giving an EWT. In the above 2 studies on leading questions, the participants watched a film of a car accident: this is not the same as seeing a car accident in real life. For instance, seeing a car accident in real life is bound to create an emotional response in the witness, which could impact their ability to recall information as it is known anxiety can reduce recall. Also, the participants were told they were going to see a car accident, so they would have been paying attention. Usually, a witness doesn’t know an incident is about to take place and might be looking elsewhere when it happens, only catching the final moments of the event.

L- Therefore, it makes it difficult to GENERALISE the findings of such studies to real life eyewitness memory.

Question 21

What is the Yerekes-Dodson law

Answer 21

A law that predicts how anxiety affects our performance

Question 22

What does the Yerkes-Dodson law suggest

Answer 22

Performance and arousal are directly related. In simpler terms, increase in arousal to a certain level can help to boost performance. Once the arousal crosses the optimal level, performance of the individual starts to diminish.

Question 23

What is the weapon focus effect

Answer 23

If a witness is anxious due to a threat, they may remember more about the thing that poses the threat and less about the other details.

Question 24

What did Loftus and Burns do

Answer 24

The study had two conditions: one violent and one non-violent. In both conditions Pt’s saw a video of a bank robbery
- One group of participants a film of a crime with no violence.
- Another group were shown the same film but with a violent incident (a boy was shot in the face).

Question 25

What were the two conditions in Loftus and Burns work

Answer 25

• One group of participants a film of a crime with no violence.
• Another group were shown the same film but with a violent incident (a boy was shot in the face).

Question 26

What did Loftus and Burns find

Answer 26

Those who saw the violent incident recalled significantly less than those who saw the film without the violent incident: suggesting that the anxiety caused by the violence negatively affected recall.

Question 27

What did Johnson and Scott do

Answer 27

The study aimed to see if anxiety would damage EW identification. In one of two conditions Pts, i) overheard a low key discussion in a lab about equipment failure. A person then emerged from the lab holding a pen in grease covered hands; or ii) overheard a heated and hostile debate between people in the lab. After the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs, a man came out of the lab holding a letter opener covered in blood. Pt’s were then asked to recall the person from 50 photos.

Question 28

What were the two conditions in Johnston and Scotts research

Answer 28

) overheard a low key discussion in a lab about equipment failure. A person then emerged from the lab holding a pen in grease covered hands; or ii) overheard a heated and hostile debate between people in the lab.

Question 29

What did Johnston and Scott find

Answer 29

49% correctly recalled the man when he was holding a pen compared to just 33% when he was holding the letter opener, weapon.

Question 30

Johnston and Scott found that:
__% correctly recalled the man when he was holding a pen compared to just __% when he was holding the letter opener, weapon.

Answer 30

49
33

Question 31

Evaluation, evidence
Loftus and Burns
- Anxiety

Answer 31

P- One strength of research into the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT is that studies are often well controlled and have high INTERNAL VALIDITY.

E- Lab experiments like Loftus & BURNS on violence / anxiety are well controlled which means we can make statements about cause & EFFECT. In this case what was responsible for changes in recall of the robbery was the level of ANXIETY CAUSED BY WHETHER THERE WAS VIOLENCE (SEEING A BOY BEING SHOT IN THE FACE OR SEEING NO VIOLENCE), which was the INDEPENDENT variable.

L- This suggests that… the research provides good support for the theory that anxiety reduces ability to recall information, making the theory more credible.

Question 32

Evaluation, reliability
- Anxiety

Answer 32

P- A further strength of the research into the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT is that this high level of control increases the reliability of the research.

E- As the research studies outlined here use experimentation, this means they should employ standardised procedures that will allow research to be replicated to check reliability . For example, in the Loftus and Burns study, there were TWO experimental conditions; in one of these conditions there was NO violent shooting and in the other a BOY was shot in the FACE.

L- This means the study can be replicated with ease to check the findings are CONSISTENT.

Question 33

Evaluation, external validity
- Anxiety

Answer 33

P- One weakness of the research into the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT is that the reliance on lab experiments means research is often low in EXTERNAL validity, because this is not the same as witnessing real life crimes.

E- For example, in an experiment, the crime is usually viewed on a VIDEO. This means that participants will probably be paying more ATTENTION than they would if it happened in real life as they are expecting something to happen. Also, it’s far less THREATENING & anxiety-provoking than being subjected to the real thing.

L- This implies… the research findings may not be generalisable to real life EWT, reducing the credibility these findings provide the theory of accuracy affecting recall.

Question 34

Evaluation, inconsistency
- Anxiety

Answer 34

P- A final weakness of research into the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT is that the research findings are inconsistent. Research into recall from real incidents involving high levels of stress indicate that memory can be accurate, detailed & long lasting.

E- For example, Christianson & Hubinette (1993) carried out a survey among 110 people, who had witnessed between them 22 genuine bank robberies. Some of these people had been bystanders while others had been directly threatened by the robbers. The victims, i.e. those subjected to the greatest stress & anxiety, showed more detailed and accurate recall than the onlookers.

L- This directly contradicts what the experimental research has found and suggests that… real life EWT is not as greatly affected by anxiety as the lab research would indicate, thus reducing the credibility of the theory.