memory - eyewitness testimonies: misleading information.

Question 1

What is meant by “eyewitness testimony”?

Answer 1

Legal term referring to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed such as accidents and crimes they have observed themselves.

Question 2

What is meant by “misleading information”?

Answer 2

Incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after the event which distorts what people remember about the event which can be done through leading questions and post-event discussion.

Question 3

What is meant by “leading questions”?

Answer 3

Questions that are phrased in a certain way to suggest a particular answer.

Question 4

What is meant by “post-event discussion”?

Answer 4

Occurs when there is more than one witness to an event where witnesses may discuss what they have seen with other co-witnesses or other people.

Question 5

What experiments research leading questions and when?

Answer 5

• Loftus and Palmer’s experiment 1 in 1974.
• Loftus and Palmer’s experiment 2 in 1974.

Question 6

What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions experiment 1?

Answer 6

Examine effect of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness.

Question 7

What is the procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions experiment 1?

Answer 7

1. 45 students were shown short video clips of car accidents.
   
   2. all were asked “how fast was the car going when they … each other?”
      
      3. each group was given a different verb to fill in the blank
         ↳ e.g. of words used were smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted.

Question 8

What are the findings of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions experiment 1?

Answer 8

When word smashed was used – 40.8mph - participants estimated the cars were travelling much faster than when the verb contacted was used – 31.8mph.

Question 9

What is the conclusion of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions experiment 1?

Answer 9

Accuracy of EWT can be affected by leading questions and that a single word has the potential to significantly distort accuracy of judgements.

Question 10

What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions experiment 2?

Answer 10

Examine effect of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness.

Question 11

What is the procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions experiment 2?

Answer 11

1. 150 student participants were shown a short film that showed a multi-vehicle car accident.
   
   2. asked questions about it.
      
      3. split into 3 groups with 50 in each group.
         
         4. one group was asked: “how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
            
            5. second was asked: “how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”
               
               6. third was not asked about the speed of the vehicles as they were the control group.
                  
                  7. one week later all participants returned and were asked: “did you see any broken glass?”
                     
                     8. there was no broken glass in the film.

Question 12

What are the findings of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions experiment 2?

Answer 12

Verb used in original questions influenced whether the participants thought they had sen broken glass where the critical verb altered their memory.

Question 13

What is the conclusion of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions experiment 2?

Answer 13

Leading questions can have distorting effect on EWT.

Question 14

Why do leading questions affect EWT?

Answer 14

• response bias
  ↳ person’s schema for the verb influences their answer.
  ➝ leading questions does not affect their memory but choice of answer.
• substitution
  ↳ memory has been imagined and they genuinely believe these changes therefore the leading question actually distorts memory.

Question 15

What is the problem with post-event discussion?

Answer 15

Combines (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.

Question 16

What experiment researches post-event discussion and when?

Answer 16

Gabbert et al’s in 2003.

Question 17

What was the aim of Gabbert et al’s PED experiment?

Answer 17

Examine effect of post-event discussion affected accuracy of EWT.

Question 18

What is the procedure of Gabbert et al’s PED experiment?

Answer 18

1. 60 students from a university and 60 adults from the local community.
   
   2. each participant watched a video from a crime scene but filmed from different points of view.
      
      3. either tested individually (control group) or in pairs (co-witness group).
         
         4. those in co-witness group were told that they had watched the same video however they had seen different perspectives of the same crime.
            
            5. completed a recall test testing their memory of the event.

Question 19

What are the findings of Gabbert et al’s PED experiment?

Answer 19

• 71% of participants recalled aspects of the film that they hadn’t seen but picked up in discussion.
• in control group 0% recalled information they hadn’t seen.

Question 20

What is the conclusion of Gabbert et al’s PED experiment?

Answer 20

Suggests witnesses often go along with each other known as witness conformity.

Question 21

Why does PED affect EWT?

Answer 21

• memory contamination
  ↳ memories become altered or distorted because they combine information from other witnesses with their own memories.
• memory conformity
  ↳ witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they think others are right.

Question 22

What is a strength of misleading information?

Answer 22

• useful real-life application.

Question 23

What are the weaknesses of misleading information?

Answer 23

• evidence against substitution.
• demand characteristics.
• tasks are artificial.

Question 24

What is the evaluation of misleading information - useful real-life application?

Answer 24

POINT - one strength is the practical importance it has played in the real world.
EVIDENCE - Loftus (1975) found leading questions can have a distorting effect on memory. Recent DNA exoneration cases have confirmed warnings of relying on eyewitnesses. Mistaken eyewitness identification was the largest factor contributing to the conviction of innocent people (Wells and Olson, 2003).
EXPLANATION - criminal justice system relies on eyewitness testimonies when prosecuting and investigating criminals therefore police are informed to not use leading questions as they can distort their account of the crime or accident.
LINK - helps reduce number of wrongful convictions and improve the criminal justice system.

Question 25

What is the evaluation of misleading information - evidence against substitution?

Answer 25

POINT - one weakness is that EWT is more accurate for some aspects of an event tan for others.
EVIDENCE - Sutherland and Hayne (2001) showed a video clip to participants where they were then asked leading questions. Recall was more accurate for central details of the event than for peripheral ones.
EXPLANATION - shows that participants paid more attention on central features of event and these memories were relatively resistant to misleading information.
LINK - suggests original memories for central details survived and were not distorted which was an outcome not predicted by substitution explanation.

Question 26

What is the evaluation of misleading information - demand characteristics?

Answer 26

POINT - one weakness is demand characteristics.
EVIDENCE - Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue many answers participants give in lab studies of EWT are as result of demand characteristics. Participants do not want to let researcher down so when questions is asked they may answer with yes so questions appears more helpful.
EXPLANATION - leading questions imply the participants needs to say a certain answer. My try meet researcher’s expectations.
LINK - internal validity decreases as they are no longer measuring accuracy of EWT.

Question 27

What is the evaluation of misleading information - tasks are artificial?

Answer 27

POINT - one weakness is the heavy reliance on artificial tasks.
EVIDENCE - Loftus and Palmer’s research procedure involved participants watching film clips of a car accident.
EXPLANATION - not a reflection of witnessing crime or accidents in real life. Real-life crime or accidents are more emotionally arousing which could affect the accuracy of EWT.
LINK - lack external validity as it cannot help explain how leading questions may influence the accuracy of EWT on real life events.

Question 28

What is the evaluation point of misleading information - useful real-life application?

Answer 28

One strength is the practical importance it has played in the real world.

Question 29

What is the evaluation evidence of misleading information - useful real-life application?

Answer 29

• Loftus (1975) found leading questions can have a distorting effect on memory.
• recent DNA exoneration cases have confirmed warnings of relying on eyewitnesses.
• mistaken eyewitness identification was the largest factor contributing to the conviction of innocent people (Wells and Olson, 2003).

Question 30

What is the evaluation explanation of misleading information - useful real-life application?

Answer 30

Criminal justice system relies on eyewitness testimonies when prosecuting and investigating criminals therefore police are informed to not use leading questions as they can distort their account of the crime or accident.

Question 31

What is the evaluation link of misleading information - useful real-life application?

Answer 31

Helps reduce number of wrongful convictions and improve the criminal justice system.

Question 32

What is the evaluation point of misleading information - evidence against substitution?

Answer 32

One weakness is that EWT is more accurate for some aspects of an event tan for others.

Question 33

What is the evaluation evidence of misleading information - evidence against substitution?

Answer 33

• Sutherland and Hayne (2001) showed a video clip to participants where they were then asked leading questions.
• recall was more accurate for central details of the event than for peripheral ones.

Question 34

What is the evaluation explanation of misleading information - evidence against substitution?

Answer 34

Shows that participants paid more attention on central features of event and these memories were relatively resistant to misleading information.

Question 35

What is the evaluation link of misleading information - evidence against substitution?

Answer 35

Suggests original memories for central details survived and were not distorted which was an outcome not predicted by substitution explanation.

Question 36

What is the evaluation point of misleading information - demand characteristics?

Answer 36

One weakness is demand characteristics.

Question 37

What is the evaluation evidence of misleading information - demand characteristics?

Answer 37

• Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue many answers participants give in lab studies of EWT are as result of demand characteristics.
• participants do not want to let researcher down so when questions is asked they may answer with yes so questions appears more helpful.

Question 38

What is the evaluation explanation of misleading information - demand characteristics?

Answer 38

• leading questions imply the participants needs to say a certain answer.
• may try meet researcher’s expectations.

Question 39

What is the evaluation link of misleading information - demand characteristics?

Answer 39

Internal validity decreases as they are no longer measuring accuracy of EWT.

Question 40

What is the evaluation point of misleading information - tasks are artificial?

Answer 40

One weakness is the heavy reliance on artificial tasks.

Question 41

What is the evaluation evidence of misleading information - tasks are artificial?

Answer 41

Loftus and Palmer’s research procedure involved participants watching film clips of a car accident.

Question 42

What is the evaluation explanation of misleading information - tasks are artificial?

Answer 42

• not a reflection of witnessing crime or accidents in real life.
• real-life crime or accidents are more emotionally arousing which could affect the accuracy of EWT.

Question 43

What is the evaluation link of misleading information - tasks are artificial?

Answer 43

Lack external validity as it cannot help explain how leading questions may influence the accuracy of EWT on real life events.