Memory Flashcards
memory
the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information
2 components important to memory
structures and processes
3 reasons why memory is important
- it is connected to learning
- it helps us operate in the present
- it is the basis of some mental illnesses
learning
a change in the nervous system, retaining a past experience
4 methods of studying memory
- recognition tests
- recall tests
- lab approach
- ecological approach
recognition tests
here is an answer, have you seen it before (multiple choice)
recall tests
here is a question, supply an answer
2 types of recall tests
- free recall
2. cued recall
free recall
no help give at all
cued recall
retrieval cue (hint) is given
example of cued recall test
paired association test
paired association test
2 words are given
- when it is time to remember, the first word is given and you must remember the second
lab approach
focus on control and internal validity
who studied memory in a lab
Ebbinghaus
Ebbinghaus experiment
studied memory using nonsense syllables
criticism of the lab approach
artificial due to being isolated to a lab
ecological approach
focus on functions in real life and external validity
external validity
how people actually use memory in reality
2 examples of ecological experiments of memory
- clock checking
2. Bahrick and school learning
clock checking experiment
observe how often kids check a clock when waiting to take something out of the oven
Bahrick and school learning
tested Spanish knowledge fresh out of high school vs 50 years old
Bahrick results
after 6 years, language dropped dramatically
- after this period language loss plateaued for 20 years
- after 26 years, language declined again
2 methods of rehearsal
- maintenance
2. elaborative
maintenance rehearsal
repeating something over and over
is maintenance rehearsal effective
no
elaborative rehearsal
thinking about information and adding context, looking for connections
5 elaborative techniques
- visual images
- self-reference
- generating information
- organize information
- survival value
why are visual images an effective memory tool
we can remember visual stimuli better than verbal stimuli
self-reference
relating info to yourself
generating information
saying something out loud is better than silently
production effect
saying something out loud is better for memory
what part of the brain is related to survival value
the amygdala sounds an alarm when faced with threats
retrieval practice
the act of repeating something helps increase memory of it
3 types of memory storage
- sensory memory
- working memory
- long-term memory
retrieval cue
the right retrieval cue will automatically retrieve information from the long-term memory
2 types of retrieval cues
intentional or unintentional
how are encoding and retrieval cues related?
when we try to remember something, we encode all related info as a retrieval cue
state dependent memory
if encoding occurs in one mood, retrieval will occur more easily in the same mood
how is state dependent memory related to depression
depressed people retrieve negative memories more easily
transfer-appropriate processing
what/how you are working on something can help encoding
example of transfer-appropriate processing
2 groups, 1 rhyming words, 1 finding meaning
- if given a recognition task, the meaning group did better
who created the modal model? when?
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
2 components of Atkinson and Shiffrin model
- structural features
2. control processes
control processes
things you can do to memories (eg: rehearsal)
structural features
boxes representing memories
sensory memory
encoding, storage, retrieval of sensory information
example of sensory memory
persistence of vision
who studied sensory memory? when?
Sperling (1960)
Sperling experiment
gave people an array of 12 letters for 50 ms and they reported what they saw
Sperling results
people reported 33% of letters
- said they initially saw more but forgot as they read the first letters
Sperling partial report method
same array but an arrow indicated which letters to report, after the letters were shown
partial report method results
people could recall 3/4 letters regardless of row
- showed they knew 75% of all the array
delayed partial report method
arrow was delayed by 1 second
delayed partial report method results
people only recalled 1/4 letters per row
long-term memory
any information stored for longer than 20 seconds
durational limits of long-term memory
only limit in duration is the human life span
capacity limits of long-term memory
will never be full and learning can always continue
evidence that short-term and long-term memories are different (3 things)
- serial position curve
- brain activity
- double dissociations
serial position curve
given list of words and memory of words is graphed
recency effect
most likely to remember words at the end of the list
primacy effect
2nd most likely to remember words at the beginning of the list
double dissociation showing long-term vs short-term
brain damage in HM vs KF
HM
had anterograde amnesia due to the lack of a hippocampi (shitty long-term memory)
KF
had poor short term memory due to a damaged parietal cortex
consolidation
process of transforming fragile memories into more permanent memories
who discovered consolidation? when?
Muller and Pilzecker (1900)
Muller and Pilzecker experiment
gave 2 groups, 2 lists of nonsense syllables
- group 1 learned the lists back to back
- group 2 learned the lists with a break in between
Muller and Pilzecker results
group 2 performed better
- memories need time to solidify in the brain
synaptic consolidation
consolidation at the level of the synapse
who studied synaptic consolidation? when?
Hebb (1940s)
long-term potentiation
enhanced firing of neurons due to repeated stimulation simultaneously
systems consolidation
consolidation at the level of the brain, can take months or years
standard model
when you remember something there are multiple brain areas involved
- hippocampus coordinates simultaneous activation of these areas
when does systems consolidation occur
when multiple brain areas are re-activated together
multiple trace model
hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of episodic memories only
reconsolidation
process in which retrieving a memory makes it fragile again
who studied reconsolidation? when?
Nadar (2000)
Nadar experiment
classical conditioning causing rats to freeze
psychological freezing
rats get scared and stop moving due to classical conditioning
3 groups in Nadar’s experiment
- rats freeze and then a drug preventing protein synthesis blocks consolidation
- rats freeze but the drug is injected a day later allowing consolidation
- rats freeze but the next day re-activate the memory before the drug, due to reconsolidation
Tulving’s taxonomy
categorizations of long-term memory created by Tulving
2 broad categories in Tulving’s taxonomy
- explicit memory
2. implicit memory
explicit memory
conscious recollection
implicit memory
unconscious recollection
types of explicit memory
- episodic
2. semantic
episodic memory
memory of events
semantic memory
memory of general information
types of implicit memory
- procedural
- classical conditioning
- priming
procedural memory
memory for an active cognition or skill
classical conditioning
change in behavior due to pairing of stimuli
priming
change in performance with a stimulus as a result of recent experiences
who studied priming? when?
Bargh, Chen and Burrows (1996)
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #1
people given 5 words, asked to make a sentence using 4
- 1/3 of the trials had “rude” words
- after trial had to talk to assistant who was mid conversation with someone else
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #1 results
people primed with rude words interrupt 70% of the time
- people primed with polite words interrupt 17% of the time
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #2
same manipulation as experiment #1
- except words were associated with old age
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #2 results
people primed with old age words walked slower to the elevator on average
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #3
subliminally flash faces on the screen (either white or black)
- the computer crashes
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #3 results
people who saw African-American faces were more hostile, regardless of the subject race, in response to the crash
theory of long-term memory different from Tulving’s
levels of processing theory
levels of processing
memory depends on depth of processing, not on its location
example of levels of processing
a list of unrelated items is difficult to remember in comparison with a list of associated items
in levels of processing is there a distinction between long and short-term memory?
no, memory is only about depth
who studied levels of processing? when?
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Craik and Lockhart experiment
3 different words tasks:
- is the words upper or lower case
- does the word rhyme with something
- does the word complete a sentence
- then tested for memory of these words
Craik and Lockhart results
memory was better with deeper processing (latency and recognition increased)
depth of processing in maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal
maintenance = shallow elaborative = deep
who studied a real life example of levels of processing? when?
Stein (1982)
Stein’s study
students asked to complete a sentence
- academically successful students completed the sentences with phrases related to the beginning of the sentence
3 ways to use levels of processing
- put info in your own words
- method of loci
- imagery
pros of levels of processing theory
- showed memory is an active process
2. gives us learning tips based on the depth effect
cons of levels of processing theory
- quantifying depth of meaning is difficult
2. effort is a confounding variable
autobiographical memory
memory for events of one’s life
what does autobiographical memory contain?
episodic and semantic memories
how is autobiographical memory multidimensional?
is contains emotions and sensory information
3 main things in autobiographical memory
- personal milestones
- transitional points
- emotional events
memory bump is also known as a …
reminiscence bump
memory bump
people remember a large number of events between the ages of 10 and 30
what causes the memory bump (3 things)
- this is when identity is formed
- life script
- distinctiveness
life script
schema of what you believe life should be like
when do a lot of life script events occur?
between the ages of 10 and 30
distinctiveness
unique events that stick in our memory
functions of autobiographical memory
helps us solve problems and create social bonds
flashbulb memory
vivid and detailed memory of a personally significant event
who coined flashbulb memory? when?
Brown and Kulik (1977)
what does flashbulb memory describe
the circumstances surrounding an event rather than the event itself
example of flashbulb memory being studied
repeated recall immediately after 9/11 and years after 9/11
are flashbulb memories accurate?
not necessarily, but people are more confident in them
what is the constructive nature of memory
memories are constructed from what actually happened plus other variables we make up
2009 memory survey results
47% of people believe memories don’t change
63% of people believe memories work like a recording
who studied constructive nature of memory? when?
Bartlett (1932)
Bartlett experiment
gave white people a native story to read with method of repeated production
- each time they read the story they left out details and added new ones
reason people failed at the native story
it didn’t fit with the Western schema
source monitoring
determining the source of a memory
source monitoring error
when you get the source of a memory confused
cryptoamnesia
unconscious plagiarism
role of familiarity in source monitoring
the more familiar something is, the more likely you are to make a source monitoring error
gender role in source monitoring
people make source monitoring errors consistent with typical gender roles
misinformation effect
presenting contrary information about an event can effect a memory
2 causes of misinformation effect
- retroactive interference
2. source monitoring error
effect of a picture on the misinformation effect
doubles the size of this effect
who studied the misinformation effect
Loftus
Loftus experiment
asked people about a car accident using different verbs to describe the accident
- asked people how fast the cars were moving
short term memory
storage device that keeps information for a brief period of time
who investigated the duration of short term memory? when?
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
Peterson and Peterson experiment
tested memory without rehearsal, gave a distraction to prevent rehearsal
Peterson and Peterson results
without rehearsal:
- 50% memory after 6 seconds
- 10% memory after 18 seconds
who replaced time with interference in short-term memory? when?
Kepel and Underwood (1962)
Kepel and Underwood theory
deterioration of short-term memory is due to interference, not time
who investigated capacity of working memory?
- Miller
- Luck and Vogel
- Alvarez and Cavagth
Miller’s theory
we can hold 7 plus or minus 2 pieces of information in working memory
if 7+-2 theory exists, how do people increase digit spans
with chunking
how is Miller’s theory related to chess
expert chess players remember locations of pieces better than novices
- only if this is in a real game
- if pieces are random, experts can’t chunk
Luck and Vogel theory
4 plus or minus 1 bits of information in visual working memory
Luck and Vogel experiment
detect changes between arrays of colored squares on a computer screen
Alvarez and Cavagth experiment
repeated Luck and Vogel’s experiment but varied square complexity
Alvarez and Cavagth results
complexity makes a big difference
functions of working memory (4 things)
- rehearse
- elaborate
- search
- compare
difference between short term and working memory
working memory is more dynamic and active
who created a model of working memory? (2 people) and when?
- Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
2. Baddeley (2000)
3 structures of Baddeley and Hitch model
- visuospatial sketch pad
- central executive
- phonological loop
central executive
information must move through this when moving between the other 2 structures
2 functions of phonological loop
- stores sounds
2. articulatory rehearsal
articulatory rehearsal
saying something in your head
word length effect
shorter words are easier to remember
phonological similarity effect
people confuse letters that sound alike
articulatory suppression
memory performance can be inhibited by speaking while trying to remember something
visuospatial sketchpad
contains visual and spatial information
visual information
visual memory and vision from senses
spatial information
planning your way through space
who investigated rotation in the visuospatial sketchpad
Metzler and Shepard
Metzler and Shepard experiment
asked participants to identify if 2 objects could be rotated to be the same
Metzler and Shepard results
the more a shape had to be mentally rotated, the longer the response took
who investigated memory of matrices?
Della Sala
Della Sala results
people could remember 9 shaded squares before making mistakes
3 central executive functions
- select
- coordinate
- integrate
how does the central executive select
schedules onset and offset of different tasks
how does the central executive coordinate
coordinates processes in the working memory
how does the central executive integrate
solves problems, comprehends, and searches
what part of the brain is associated with the central executive
frontal lobes
dysexecutive syndrome
associated with frontal lobe damage, inability to inhibit, delay responding, and solve problems
how is the current working memory model different
includes an episodic buffer
episodic buffer
binds information together in episodic chunks
significance of episodic buffer
may be where conscious awareness happens
is the episodic buffer testable
not really
3 functions of prefrontal cortex in working memory
- neural mind reading and delayed responding
- recording neurons in delayed response task
- brain damage and delayed response task
neural mind reading
guessing what someone is thinking
recording neurons
certain prefrontal cortex neurons are active in the waiting period
which part of the brain maintains verbal information
left parietal lobe
which part of the brain is involved in subvocal rehearsal
left frontal lobe
which hemisphere is more related to spatial tasks
right
which hemisphere is more related to verbal tasks
left
