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Psychology 258 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

memory

A

the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information

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2
Q

2 components important to memory

A

structures and processes

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3
Q

3 reasons why memory is important

A
  1. it is connected to learning
  2. it helps us operate in the present
  3. it is the basis of some mental illnesses
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4
Q

learning

A

a change in the nervous system, retaining a past experience

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5
Q

4 methods of studying memory

A
  1. recognition tests
  2. recall tests
  3. lab approach
  4. ecological approach
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6
Q

recognition tests

A

here is an answer, have you seen it before (multiple choice)

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7
Q

recall tests

A

here is a question, supply an answer

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8
Q

2 types of recall tests

A
  1. free recall

2. cued recall

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9
Q

free recall

A

no help give at all

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10
Q

cued recall

A

retrieval cue (hint) is given

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11
Q

example of cued recall test

A

paired association test

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12
Q

paired association test

A

2 words are given

- when it is time to remember, the first word is given and you must remember the second

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13
Q

lab approach

A

focus on control and internal validity

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14
Q

who studied memory in a lab

A

Ebbinghaus

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15
Q

Ebbinghaus experiment

A

studied memory using nonsense syllables

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16
Q

criticism of the lab approach

A

artificial due to being isolated to a lab

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17
Q

ecological approach

A

focus on functions in real life and external validity

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18
Q

external validity

A

how people actually use memory in reality

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19
Q

2 examples of ecological experiments of memory

A
  1. clock checking

2. Bahrick and school learning

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20
Q

clock checking experiment

A

observe how often kids check a clock when waiting to take something out of the oven

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21
Q

Bahrick and school learning

A

tested Spanish knowledge fresh out of high school vs 50 years old

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22
Q

Bahrick results

A

after 6 years, language dropped dramatically

  • after this period language loss plateaued for 20 years
  • after 26 years, language declined again
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23
Q

2 methods of rehearsal

A
  1. maintenance

2. elaborative

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24
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A

repeating something over and over

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25
Q

is maintenance rehearsal effective

A

no

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26
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

thinking about information and adding context, looking for connections

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27
Q

5 elaborative techniques

A
  1. visual images
  2. self-reference
  3. generating information
  4. organize information
  5. survival value
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28
Q

why are visual images an effective memory tool

A

we can remember visual stimuli better than verbal stimuli

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29
Q

self-reference

A

relating info to yourself

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30
Q

generating information

A

saying something out loud is better than silently

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31
Q

production effect

A

saying something out loud is better for memory

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32
Q

what part of the brain is related to survival value

A

the amygdala sounds an alarm when faced with threats

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33
Q

retrieval practice

A

the act of repeating something helps increase memory of it

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34
Q

3 types of memory storage

A
  1. sensory memory
  2. working memory
  3. long-term memory
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35
Q

retrieval cue

A

the right retrieval cue will automatically retrieve information from the long-term memory

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36
Q

2 types of retrieval cues

A

intentional or unintentional

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37
Q

how are encoding and retrieval cues related?

A

when we try to remember something, we encode all related info as a retrieval cue

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38
Q

state dependent memory

A

if encoding occurs in one mood, retrieval will occur more easily in the same mood

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39
Q

how is state dependent memory related to depression

A

depressed people retrieve negative memories more easily

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40
Q

transfer-appropriate processing

A

what/how you are working on something can help encoding

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41
Q

example of transfer-appropriate processing

A

2 groups, 1 rhyming words, 1 finding meaning

- if given a recognition task, the meaning group did better

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42
Q

who created the modal model? when?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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43
Q

2 components of Atkinson and Shiffrin model

A
  1. structural features

2. control processes

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44
Q

control processes

A

things you can do to memories (eg: rehearsal)

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45
Q

structural features

A

boxes representing memories

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46
Q

sensory memory

A

encoding, storage, retrieval of sensory information

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47
Q

example of sensory memory

A

persistence of vision

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48
Q

who studied sensory memory? when?

A

Sperling (1960)

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49
Q

Sperling experiment

A

gave people an array of 12 letters for 50 ms and they reported what they saw

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50
Q

Sperling results

A

people reported 33% of letters

- said they initially saw more but forgot as they read the first letters

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51
Q

Sperling partial report method

A

same array but an arrow indicated which letters to report, after the letters were shown

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52
Q

partial report method results

A

people could recall 3/4 letters regardless of row

- showed they knew 75% of all the array

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53
Q

delayed partial report method

A

arrow was delayed by 1 second

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54
Q

delayed partial report method results

A

people only recalled 1/4 letters per row

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55
Q

long-term memory

A

any information stored for longer than 20 seconds

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56
Q

durational limits of long-term memory

A

only limit in duration is the human life span

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57
Q

capacity limits of long-term memory

A

will never be full and learning can always continue

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58
Q

evidence that short-term and long-term memories are different (3 things)

A
  1. serial position curve
  2. brain activity
  3. double dissociations
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59
Q

serial position curve

A

given list of words and memory of words is graphed

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60
Q

recency effect

A

most likely to remember words at the end of the list

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61
Q

primacy effect

A

2nd most likely to remember words at the beginning of the list

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62
Q

double dissociation showing long-term vs short-term

A

brain damage in HM vs KF

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63
Q

HM

A

had anterograde amnesia due to the lack of a hippocampi (shitty long-term memory)

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64
Q

KF

A

had poor short term memory due to a damaged parietal cortex

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65
Q

consolidation

A

process of transforming fragile memories into more permanent memories

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66
Q

who discovered consolidation? when?

A

Muller and Pilzecker (1900)

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67
Q

Muller and Pilzecker experiment

A

gave 2 groups, 2 lists of nonsense syllables

  • group 1 learned the lists back to back
  • group 2 learned the lists with a break in between
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68
Q

Muller and Pilzecker results

A

group 2 performed better

- memories need time to solidify in the brain

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69
Q

synaptic consolidation

A

consolidation at the level of the synapse

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70
Q

who studied synaptic consolidation? when?

A

Hebb (1940s)

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71
Q

long-term potentiation

A

enhanced firing of neurons due to repeated stimulation simultaneously

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72
Q

systems consolidation

A

consolidation at the level of the brain, can take months or years

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73
Q

standard model

A

when you remember something there are multiple brain areas involved
- hippocampus coordinates simultaneous activation of these areas

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74
Q

when does systems consolidation occur

A

when multiple brain areas are re-activated together

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75
Q

multiple trace model

A

hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of episodic memories only

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76
Q

reconsolidation

A

process in which retrieving a memory makes it fragile again

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77
Q

who studied reconsolidation? when?

A

Nadar (2000)

78
Q

Nadar experiment

A

classical conditioning causing rats to freeze

79
Q

psychological freezing

A

rats get scared and stop moving due to classical conditioning

80
Q

3 groups in Nadar’s experiment

A
  1. rats freeze and then a drug preventing protein synthesis blocks consolidation
  2. rats freeze but the drug is injected a day later allowing consolidation
  3. rats freeze but the next day re-activate the memory before the drug, due to reconsolidation
81
Q

Tulving’s taxonomy

A

categorizations of long-term memory created by Tulving

82
Q

2 broad categories in Tulving’s taxonomy

A
  1. explicit memory

2. implicit memory

83
Q

explicit memory

A

conscious recollection

84
Q

implicit memory

A

unconscious recollection

85
Q

types of explicit memory

A
  1. episodic

2. semantic

86
Q

episodic memory

A

memory of events

87
Q

semantic memory

A

memory of general information

88
Q

types of implicit memory

A
  1. procedural
  2. classical conditioning
  3. priming
89
Q

procedural memory

A

memory for an active cognition or skill

90
Q

classical conditioning

A

change in behavior due to pairing of stimuli

91
Q

priming

A

change in performance with a stimulus as a result of recent experiences

92
Q

who studied priming? when?

A

Bargh, Chen and Burrows (1996)

93
Q

Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #1

A

people given 5 words, asked to make a sentence using 4

  • 1/3 of the trials had “rude” words
  • after trial had to talk to assistant who was mid conversation with someone else
94
Q

Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #1 results

A

people primed with rude words interrupt 70% of the time

- people primed with polite words interrupt 17% of the time

95
Q

Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #2

A

same manipulation as experiment #1

- except words were associated with old age

96
Q

Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #2 results

A

people primed with old age words walked slower to the elevator on average

97
Q

Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #3

A

subliminally flash faces on the screen (either white or black)
- the computer crashes

98
Q

Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #3 results

A

people who saw African-American faces were more hostile, regardless of the subject race, in response to the crash

99
Q

theory of long-term memory different from Tulving’s

A

levels of processing theory

100
Q

levels of processing

A

memory depends on depth of processing, not on its location

101
Q

example of levels of processing

A

a list of unrelated items is difficult to remember in comparison with a list of associated items

102
Q

in levels of processing is there a distinction between long and short-term memory?

A

no, memory is only about depth

103
Q

who studied levels of processing? when?

A

Craik and Lockhart (1972)

104
Q

Craik and Lockhart experiment

A

3 different words tasks:

  1. is the words upper or lower case
  2. does the word rhyme with something
  3. does the word complete a sentence
    - then tested for memory of these words
105
Q

Craik and Lockhart results

A

memory was better with deeper processing (latency and recognition increased)

106
Q

depth of processing in maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal

A 
maintenance = shallow
elaborative = deep
107
Q

who studied a real life example of levels of processing? when?

A

Stein (1982)

108
Q

Stein’s study

A

students asked to complete a sentence

- academically successful students completed the sentences with phrases related to the beginning of the sentence

109
Q

3 ways to use levels of processing

A
  1. put info in your own words
  2. method of loci
  3. imagery
110
Q

pros of levels of processing theory

A
  1. showed memory is an active process

2. gives us learning tips based on the depth effect

111
Q

cons of levels of processing theory

A
  1. quantifying depth of meaning is difficult

2. effort is a confounding variable

112
Q

autobiographical memory

A

memory for events of one’s life

113
Q

what does autobiographical memory contain?

A

episodic and semantic memories

114
Q

how is autobiographical memory multidimensional?

A

is contains emotions and sensory information

115
Q

3 main things in autobiographical memory

A
  1. personal milestones
  2. transitional points
  3. emotional events
116
Q

memory bump is also known as a …

A

reminiscence bump

117
Q

memory bump

A

people remember a large number of events between the ages of 10 and 30

118
Q

what causes the memory bump (3 things)

A
  1. this is when identity is formed
  2. life script
  3. distinctiveness
119
Q

life script

A

schema of what you believe life should be like

120
Q

when do a lot of life script events occur?

A

between the ages of 10 and 30

121
Q

distinctiveness

A

unique events that stick in our memory

122
Q

functions of autobiographical memory

A

helps us solve problems and create social bonds

123
Q

flashbulb memory

A

vivid and detailed memory of a personally significant event

124
Q

who coined flashbulb memory? when?

A

Brown and Kulik (1977)

125
Q

what does flashbulb memory describe

A

the circumstances surrounding an event rather than the event itself

126
Q

example of flashbulb memory being studied

A

repeated recall immediately after 9/11 and years after 9/11

127
Q

are flashbulb memories accurate?

A

not necessarily, but people are more confident in them

128
Q

what is the constructive nature of memory

A

memories are constructed from what actually happened plus other variables we make up

129
Q

2009 memory survey results

A

47% of people believe memories don’t change

63% of people believe memories work like a recording

130
Q

who studied constructive nature of memory? when?

A

Bartlett (1932)

131
Q

Bartlett experiment

A

gave white people a native story to read with method of repeated production
- each time they read the story they left out details and added new ones

132
Q

reason people failed at the native story

A

it didn’t fit with the Western schema

133
Q

source monitoring

A

determining the source of a memory

134
Q

source monitoring error

A

when you get the source of a memory confused

135
Q

cryptoamnesia

A

unconscious plagiarism

136
Q

role of familiarity in source monitoring

A

the more familiar something is, the more likely you are to make a source monitoring error

137
Q

gender role in source monitoring

A

people make source monitoring errors consistent with typical gender roles

138
Q

misinformation effect

A

presenting contrary information about an event can effect a memory

139
Q

2 causes of misinformation effect

A
  1. retroactive interference

2. source monitoring error

140
Q

effect of a picture on the misinformation effect

A

doubles the size of this effect

141
Q

who studied the misinformation effect

A

Loftus

142
Q

Loftus experiment

A

asked people about a car accident using different verbs to describe the accident
- asked people how fast the cars were moving

143
Q

short term memory

A

storage device that keeps information for a brief period of time

144
Q

who investigated the duration of short term memory? when?

A

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

145
Q

Peterson and Peterson experiment

A

tested memory without rehearsal, gave a distraction to prevent rehearsal

146
Q

Peterson and Peterson results

A

without rehearsal:

  • 50% memory after 6 seconds
  • 10% memory after 18 seconds
147
Q

who replaced time with interference in short-term memory? when?

A

Kepel and Underwood (1962)

148
Q

Kepel and Underwood theory

A

deterioration of short-term memory is due to interference, not time

149
Q

who investigated capacity of working memory?

A
  1. Miller
  2. Luck and Vogel
  3. Alvarez and Cavagth
150
Q

Miller’s theory

A

we can hold 7 plus or minus 2 pieces of information in working memory

151
Q

if 7+-2 theory exists, how do people increase digit spans

A

with chunking

152
Q

how is Miller’s theory related to chess

A

expert chess players remember locations of pieces better than novices

  • only if this is in a real game
  • if pieces are random, experts can’t chunk
153
Q

Luck and Vogel theory

A

4 plus or minus 1 bits of information in visual working memory

154
Q

Luck and Vogel experiment

A

detect changes between arrays of colored squares on a computer screen

155
Q

Alvarez and Cavagth experiment

A

repeated Luck and Vogel’s experiment but varied square complexity

156
Q

Alvarez and Cavagth results

A

complexity makes a big difference

157
Q

functions of working memory (4 things)

A
  1. rehearse
  2. elaborate
  3. search
  4. compare
158
Q

difference between short term and working memory

A

working memory is more dynamic and active

159
Q

who created a model of working memory? (2 people) and when?

A
  1. Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

2. Baddeley (2000)

160
Q

3 structures of Baddeley and Hitch model

A
  1. visuospatial sketch pad
  2. central executive
  3. phonological loop
161
Q

central executive

A

information must move through this when moving between the other 2 structures

162
Q

2 functions of phonological loop

A
  1. stores sounds

2. articulatory rehearsal

163
Q

articulatory rehearsal

A

saying something in your head

164
Q

word length effect

A

shorter words are easier to remember

165
Q

phonological similarity effect

A

people confuse letters that sound alike

166
Q

articulatory suppression

A

memory performance can be inhibited by speaking while trying to remember something

167
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

contains visual and spatial information

168
Q

visual information

A

visual memory and vision from senses

169
Q

spatial information

A

planning your way through space

170
Q

who investigated rotation in the visuospatial sketchpad

A

Metzler and Shepard

171
Q

Metzler and Shepard experiment

A

asked participants to identify if 2 objects could be rotated to be the same

172
Q

Metzler and Shepard results

A

the more a shape had to be mentally rotated, the longer the response took

173
Q

who investigated memory of matrices?

A

Della Sala

174
Q

Della Sala results

A

people could remember 9 shaded squares before making mistakes

175
Q

3 central executive functions

A
  1. select
  2. coordinate
  3. integrate
176
Q

how does the central executive select

A

schedules onset and offset of different tasks

177
Q

how does the central executive coordinate

A

coordinates processes in the working memory

178
Q

how does the central executive integrate

A

solves problems, comprehends, and searches

179
Q

what part of the brain is associated with the central executive

A

frontal lobes

180
Q

dysexecutive syndrome

A

associated with frontal lobe damage, inability to inhibit, delay responding, and solve problems

181
Q

how is the current working memory model different

A

includes an episodic buffer

182
Q

episodic buffer

A

binds information together in episodic chunks

183
Q

significance of episodic buffer

A

may be where conscious awareness happens

184
Q

is the episodic buffer testable

A

not really

185
Q

3 functions of prefrontal cortex in working memory

A
  1. neural mind reading and delayed responding
  2. recording neurons in delayed response task
  3. brain damage and delayed response task
186
Q

neural mind reading

A

guessing what someone is thinking

187
Q

recording neurons

A

certain prefrontal cortex neurons are active in the waiting period

188
Q

which part of the brain maintains verbal information

A

left parietal lobe

189
Q

which part of the brain is involved in subvocal rehearsal

A

left frontal lobe

190
Q

which hemisphere is more related to spatial tasks

A

right

191
Q

which hemisphere is more related to verbal tasks

A

left

Psychology 258 (8 decks)

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