Memory Flashcards
What is a stimulus?
Any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response in an organism.
What was the first model of Memory?
The Multi-store Model
What is the Duration for LTM?
Up to a lifetime.
What is the capacity for LTM & STM
LTM: Unlimited.
STM: 7+/-2 items
Who designed MSM and when was it introduced?
Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968.
Define Capacity
TRIGGER WORDS;
1. measure
What is it represented as?
The measure of how much can be held in memory. Usually represented as numbers.
What are the case studies of the MSM?
Clive Wearing and KF(Shallice and Warrington) - supports
Patient HM - refutes
Peterson and Peterson (1959) - strength
Bahrick (1975) - strength
Badderly - Strength
Define long-term memory (LTM)
Your memory of events that have occured in the past. This lasts anywhere from 2 minutes to 100 years.
Define sensory register
The place where information is held at each of the senses.
What is the coding of the STM?
Refers to the way in which information is changed and stored in memory.
The main type of coding for STM = acoustic
(Baddeley study effects of acoustic and semantic encoding.)
What is CODING
the way which the information is stored
sounds (acoustic), images (visual) or meaning (semantic)
Coding Baddeley (1966) - 4 groups learn different word lists
Had 4 groups learn different word lists: A - acoustically similar B - acoustically dissimilar; C - semantically similar and D - sematically dissimilar.
Define short-term memory (STM)
TRIGGER WORDS:
Immediate
Can disappear unless what?
Your memory for immediate events.
STM is measured in seconds and minutes. They disappear unless rehearsed.
What are the 5 components of the sensory register?
- Echoic store (Sound)
- Haptic store (Touch)
- Iconic store (Visual)
- Gustatory store (Taste)
- Olfactory store (Smell)
What is the capacity of the SR?
what is the quaility of info?
Very large(potentially unlimited) - info is unprocessed & highly detailed,
What is the duration of the SR?
TRIGGER WORD:
- Limi
but varies
depending on type of info
Limited but varies not only between stores but within stores depending on the type of info held.
What is the duration of STM?
30s
How could this be extented?
Up to a maximum of 30 seconds - can be extended through rehearsal (Maintenance rehearsal) of information.
How can capacity be assessed?
Using digital span tests.
What is the capacity of STM?
aproximatley how many items?
The limited capacity of between 5-9 items.
What is Maintenance rehearsal?
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. rep
what is the repetition of informaton keeps it in what
What does this not lead to?
The repetition of information keeps it in STM by constantly rehearsing it. This does not lead to the transfer of LTM.
How does the Multi-store model (MSM) work?
TRIGGER WORDS:
- Detection
- enter
- transferred only is?
- Information is detected by the senses and enters the sensory register.
- The information enters the short term memory.
- Information from the short-term memory is transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed multiple times.
Define Duration
Measure before it is no longer
A measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available.
Who researched STM capacity ?
(Joseph) Jacobs and (George) Miller
Jocobs- digit span 9.3 items for digits and 7.3 for letters
Miller - 7+/-2 items, recall words as well as letters - chunk things together so can remember more
Who researched the duration of LTM
Bahrick et al (1975)
What were the results of Baddeley (1966) coding experiment
TRIGGER WORDS:
- similar
Does it make it easier or harder to recall?
did the meaning have little or more effect - sem similar
does it make it harder to recall
- STM : words that sound (acoustically) similar are harder to recall but the meaning had little effect
- LTM : semantically similar are harder to recall
-acoustically similar hard for STM and sematically similar hard for LTM
SEMANTIC MEMORY
TRIGGER WORDS.
TRIGGER WORDS:
fac + kno
Shared memories for facts and knowledge. These memories mauy be concrete such as knowing ice is made of water, or abstract such as mathematical knowledge
-knowledge about world which is shared by everyone rather personal stuff
EPISODIC MEMORY
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. Per
are these complex or simple?
and why? what do they require
effort
personal memories or events which include contextual detail and emotive tone. They are quite complex as they are ‘time-stamped’ and require a conscious effort to recall
such as what you did yesterday or a teacher you liked
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. how
but what does it not require?
Memory of how to do things such as skills but don’t require a conscious effort to perform. These memories are automatic as the result of repeated practice
Eg. riging a bike or learning how to read
What did Baddeley (1966) investigate?
photo-recognition test
Found that in the photo-recognition test, ppts could remember names of former classmates with 90% accuracy within 15 years of graduation but this figure declined to 70% after 48 years
What is the order of the Multi-Store Model of Memory?
input - sensory register - attention - stm store - rehearsal - ltm store
Who researched the MSM?
and what did they do?
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
-showed ppts list of 20 words. Results showed serial position effect which is “when asking people to remember a list of words which is greater than the capacity of STM they have the tendency to remember words from the beginning and end of the list”
Primacy effect- remembering first 5 or so words from list
Recency effect- remembering the last 5 or so words from the end of a list
What are the 4 components to the WMM ?
- central executive
- visuo-spatial sketchpad
- phonological loop
- episodic buffer (added in 2000)
Who designed the WMM ?
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
What is one strength, linked with different areas, about the WMM ?
- different ares of the brain are activated depending on the task
- Posner = PET scans, visual = posterior, auditory = lateral
- support research
What is another strength, linking to support evidence, about the WMM?
support evidence from dual task research
- Baddeley and Hitch 1976 found performance decreased when participants had to do task that required the same slave systems.
- we can multitask if they require the same slave system e.g. articulatory and phonological
- shows that the central executive is one of the components of working memory
What is a weakness, about the ecological validity, of the WMM?
- lacks ecological validity
- research is lab-based - lacks mundane realism
- difficult to apply to everyday life
What are the 4 parts to the Cognitive Interview
- Report everything (RE)
- Context Reinstatement (CR)
- Recall in reverse order (RO)
- Change perspective (CP)
What is another weakness, to do with the central executive, about the WMM ?
- Not entirely clear how this component works - Vagueness allows it to explain most experimental findings
Define PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
Past learning interferes with current attempts to learn something
Define RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
Current attempts to learn something interfere with past learning
WHO STUDIED?
The effect the environment has on recall
(scuba-divers one)
Godden & Baddeley
WHO STUDIED?
The Weapon Focus Phenomenon
- the effect anxiety has on memory recall
Loftus & Burns – P’s shown violent film where a boy was shot in the face had less accurate EWT than those shown a non-violent version.
WHO STUDIED?
Real-life event
- Canada shooting
Yuille & Cutshall (1986)
WHO STUDIED?
Influence of leading questions & misleading questions
(car crash one)
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
WHO STUDIED?
Post-event discussion
Gabbert et al. (2003)
ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
involves both linking the information to knowledge already stored and repeating the information.
MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL?
The process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information.
WHO STUDIED?
Comparing Cognitive interviews to standard interviews
Geiselman et al (1985)
Ppts viewed film on violent crime and after 48 hours were interviewed. T
What is the WEAKNESS of the study of STM duration?
- Brown; Peterson & Peterson
Testing STM is artifical
does not reflect everday life
P: A criticism of STM research is that it tends to take place in artifical situations
E: Much of the research involved trying to remember meaningless consonant syllables. Doesn’t reflect how we use memory in real life, where information tends to be more meaninful
E: However, we do also try to remember some essentially meaningless materials (e.g postcodes) so research has some relevance
What are the STRENGTHS of the study of LTM duration?
- Bahrick et al
Unlike many memory experiments, this study used meaningful stimulus material (High-school yearbooks) and tested people for memories from their own lives
What is the STRENGTH of the research for MSM?
- Glanzer & Cunitz
-
AO3 STM (The Size of chunks matters)
R: Research has shown that the size of the chunk affects the number of chunks that can be remembered
E: Simon (1974) found that people have smaller memory span for larger chunks (e.g multi-syllable words, which take longer to rehearse, compared to single s words)
E: This supports the view that the STM has limited capcity, despite the benefits of chunking
AO3 (The capacity of STM may be even more limited)
P: A criticism of research into STM is that miller’s findings have not been replicated
E: Cowan reviewed studies on the capacity of STM and concluded that STM is probably limited to 4 rather than 7 ‘chunks’.
E: This suggets that STM is not as extensive as the 7+/ 2 items claimed by Miller
Individual differeneces (STM)
The capcity of STM of the chunk affects how many chunks you can remeber. Jacob also found that recal increased steadily with age 8 year
Attention
If a person’s attention is focused on one of the sensory stores, then the data is transferred to STM
Strengths of MSM
- Lab studies eg Jacobs, Miller, Peterson & Peterson,Bahrick,Baddeley.
- Brain scans eg Beardsley linked STM to prefrontal cortex, squire et al. Linked LTM to hippoacampus.
- Case study of HM- Linked formation of new LTMs to hippocampus (Scoville and Milner).
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repetion keeps information in STM but eventually such repetion will create a LTM.
Retrieval
The process of getting information from LTM involves the information passing back through STM.
Limitation MSM
MSM is too simple, STM and LTM are not unitary stores
LTM involves elaborative rather than just maintenance rehearsal.
Further evaluation
STM not independant of LTM - Ruchkin et al. showed different brain activity for words and pseudo-words.
Strengths of WMM
- Hitch and Baddeley - P’s slower when dual tasks (CE + CE and articulatory loop.) Demonstrates
Study on Long-term memory - Bahrick (1975)
Duration of LMT
tested 400ppl aged 17-74 on their memory of classmates. A photorecognition test consisted of 50 photos including some from their high-school year book. Participants were asked to list the names they could remember of those in their graduating class.
Results:
tested within 15 years–> 90% accurate in identifying faces
tested after 48 years –> 70% accurate for photorecognition
Cases studies for the MSM?
Shallice and Warrington
‘KF’ brain damage from a motorcycle accident.
Case study on MSM
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
To test how long STM lasts when rehearsal is prevented
The Working Memory Model (Baddely & Hitch 1974)
Suggests that STM is made up of the central executive, the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad and the episodic buffe
Central executive
Most important component and is responsible for monitoring and co-ordinating the operation of the slave systems.
Phonological Loop (PL)
Phonological Loop stores a limited number of sounds for brief periods. Has two components.
Phonological store (inner ear), which allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief period. Articulatory control system (inner voice), which allows sub-vocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store.
Articulatory control system (inner voice)
Allows sub-vocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store.
Phonological store (Inner ear)
Allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief period.
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS)
A limited capacity, temporary memory system for holding visual and spatial information.
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS): Logie (1995) VSS divided into:
- Visual Cache – passive visual store
2. Inner scribe – visual rehearsal mechanism
Episodic Buffer
Integrates and manipulates material in working memory from different sources into chunks or episodes.
- Comparison between MSM & WMM
TRIGGER WORDS: - offers better account of
WM offers better account of STM than MSM – not one store but several components.
- Comparison between MSM & WMM
TRIGGER WORDS: - Inclues verbal maintenance
WM includes verbal maintenance rehearsal as an optional process, rather than the only means to get info in STM.
- Comparison between MSM & WMM
TRIGGER WORDS: - WM process
WM emphasises process – MSM emphasises structure.
- Comparison between MSM & WMM
TRIGGER WORDS:
WM holds most recently
WM immediate memory holds most recently activated LTM – MSM treats STM as a way station to and from LTM.
Farah et al (1988) - KF
SUPPORT WMM
studied a patient called KF who had been involved in a motorcycle accident. The accident affected his verbal information but not his visual information. KF also performed better on spatial tasks than visual imagery tasks. This suggests that the STM is made up of separate stores and that one store can work without interfering with the other.
What does Logie’s (1995) addition to WMM suggest
further suggest that the separate components are specialised for different modalities.
Eslinger & Damasio (1985)
WEAKNESS OF WMM
TRIGGER WORDS:
studied patient EVR who had:
A cerebral tumour removed and performed well on reasoning tests suggesting CE was intact, yet performed poorly on decision making exercises suggesting the opposite.
Bunge et al ( Counter point) – using MRI scans found significantly more activation in dual task condition than in a single task condition.
What does this indicate
This indicates increased attention demands. Include methodological evaluation, validity, reliability, generalisation, representativeness.
What does the MSM explain?
Explains Memory as a Linear Structure and Process
Findings of (Baddeley 1966) - Findings of coding in STM and LTM Evidence for Acoustic Encoding in STM
Words with similar sounds were much harder to recall using STM than words with dissimilar sounds. Similarity of meaning had on a very sight detrimental effect on STM.
Findings of (Baddeley 1966) - Findings of coding in STM and LTM Evidence for Semantic Encoding in LTM
Recall was much worse for semantically similar words than for semantically dissimilar words. Recall from LTM was the same for acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar words
Conclusion for (Baddeley 1966) - Coding in STM and LTM LINK SENTENCE
This suggests that STM relies heavily on acoustic encoding and LTM primarily makes use of semantic encoding.
AO3 Baddeley (1966) - Brandimote et al - Found evidence of acoustic encoding in LTM - Wickens found evidnece for semantic coding in STM
Found that P’s used visual coding for visual task when prevented from using verbal rehearsal. Normal we translate visual codes into verbal code
Peterson & Peterson (1959) - Aim
To test how long STM lasts when rehearsal is prevented
Peterson & Peterson - Method
Each p’s was given 2 practice trials followed by 8 trials
Time intervals for counting backwards were in 3s
P’s shown a consonant trigram then asked to count backwards in threes or fours from a specified number to prevent them from rehearsing the consonant trigram.
4 Basic principles of cognitive interviews
- mental reinstatement
- report everything
- change order
- change perspective
When STM was test what happened to group A
Baddeley (1966)
They had the worst recall
When STM was test what happened to group C
Baddeley (1966)
When LTM was tested 20 min later (semantically similar words) had the worst recall
Coding
STM may not be exclusively acoustic
P: some studies have found that visual codes also used in STM
E: Brandimote et al (1992) found p’s used visual coding in STM when they were given pictures to remember and prevented from verbally rehearsing.
E: This suggests there might be multiple types of coding in STM and that STM is not exclusively accoustic
Coding
LTM may not exclusively sematic
P: In general, LTM appears to be sematic, but this is not always the case.
E: Frost (1973) showed that LT recall was related to visual as well as semantic categories. Futhermore Nelson and Rothbart (1972) found evidence for acoustic coding in LTM.
E: Ths suggests LTM is encoded using acoustic, visual and sematic information, depending on the type of information being remembered.
A criticism of research investigating LTM is that…
E - Frost (1972) showed that LTM recall was related to visual as well as sematic categories
E - Furthermore, Rothbart (1972) found evidence for acoustic coding in LTM
L - This suggests that LTM might be encoded using acoustic, visual and semantic information, depending on the type of information being remembered
Patient HM
Suffered from seizures prior to memory loss. Lost memory on an operating table due to brain resection surgery. Transfer from STM to LTM was affected. Couldn’t remember the past 2 years of his life
–> supports MSM
Clive Wearing PEEL -supporting MSM
P- Clive wearing’s case supports the multi-store model.
E- He suffered from brain damage which resulted in severe amnesia and was unable to transfer information from his STM to his LTM
E- This matters because it demonstrates that the MSM is essential when transferring info from STM to LTM. When it is broken we cannot form new memories, supporting the linear nature of the multi-store model.
L- Furthermore demonstrating that damage to any part of the MSM can lead to memory impairment.
