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A-Level AQA Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a stimulus?

A

Any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response in an organism.

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2
Q

What was the first model of Memory?

A

The Multi-store Model

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3
Q

What is the Duration for LTM?

A

Up to a lifetime.

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4
Q

What is the capacity for LTM & STM

A

LTM: Unlimited.
STM: 7+/-2 items

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5
Q

Who designed MSM and when was it introduced?

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968.

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6
Q

Define Capacity

TRIGGER WORDS;
1. measure

What is it represented as?

A

The measure of how much can be held in memory. Usually represented as numbers.

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7
Q

What are the case studies of the MSM?

A

Clive Wearing and KF(Shallice and Warrington) - supports

Patient HM - refutes

Peterson and Peterson (1959) - strength

Bahrick (1975) - strength

Badderly - Strength

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8
Q

Define long-term memory (LTM)

A

Your memory of events that have occured in the past. This lasts anywhere from 2 minutes to 100 years.

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9
Q

Define sensory register

A

The place where information is held at each of the senses.

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10
Q

What is the coding of the STM?

A

Refers to the way in which information is changed and stored in memory.

The main type of coding for STM = acoustic

(Baddeley study effects of acoustic and semantic encoding.)

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11
Q

What is CODING

A

the way which the information is stored

sounds (acoustic), images (visual) or meaning (semantic)

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12
Q

Coding Baddeley (1966) - 4 groups learn different word lists

A

Had 4 groups learn different word lists: A - acoustically similar B - acoustically dissimilar; C - semantically similar and D - sematically dissimilar.

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13
Q

Define short-term memory (STM)

TRIGGER WORDS:
Immediate

Can disappear unless what?

A

Your memory for immediate events.

STM is measured in seconds and minutes. They disappear unless rehearsed.

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14
Q

What are the 5 components of the sensory register?

A
  • Echoic store (Sound)
  • Haptic store (Touch)
  • Iconic store (Visual)
  • Gustatory store (Taste)
  • Olfactory store (Smell)
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15
Q

What is the capacity of the SR?

what is the quaility of info?

A

Very large(potentially unlimited) - info is unprocessed & highly detailed,

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16
Q

What is the duration of the SR?

TRIGGER WORD:

  1. Limi
    but varies

depending on type of info

A

Limited but varies not only between stores but within stores depending on the type of info held.

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17
Q

What is the duration of STM?

30s

How could this be extented?

A

Up to a maximum of 30 seconds - can be extended through rehearsal (Maintenance rehearsal) of information.

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18
Q

How can capacity be assessed?

A

Using digital span tests.

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19
Q

What is the capacity of STM?

aproximatley how many items?

A

The limited capacity of between 5-9 items.

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20
Q

What is Maintenance rehearsal?

TRIGGER WORDS:
1. rep

what is the repetition of informaton keeps it in what
What does this not lead to?

A

The repetition of information keeps it in STM by constantly rehearsing it. This does not lead to the transfer of LTM.

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21
Q

How does the Multi-store model (MSM) work?

TRIGGER WORDS:

  1. Detection
  2. enter
  3. transferred only is?
A
  1. Information is detected by the senses and enters the sensory register.
  2. The information enters the short term memory.
  3. Information from the short-term memory is transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed multiple times.
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22
Q

Define Duration

Measure before it is no longer

A

A measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available.

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23
Q

Who researched STM capacity ?

A

(Joseph) Jacobs and (George) Miller
Jocobs- digit span 9.3 items for digits and 7.3 for letters
Miller - 7+/-2 items, recall words as well as letters - chunk things together so can remember more

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24
Q

Who researched the duration of LTM

A

Bahrick et al (1975)

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25
Q

What were the results of Baddeley (1966) coding experiment

TRIGGER WORDS:

  1. similar
    Does it make it easier or harder to recall?
    did the meaning have little or more effect
  2. sem similar
    does it make it harder to recall
A
  • STM : words that sound (acoustically) similar are harder to recall but the meaning had little effect
  • LTM : semantically similar are harder to recall

-acoustically similar hard for STM and sematically similar hard for LTM

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26
Q

SEMANTIC MEMORY

TRIGGER WORDS.

TRIGGER WORDS:
fac + kno

A

Shared memories for facts and knowledge. These memories mauy be concrete such as knowing ice is made of water, or abstract such as mathematical knowledge

-knowledge about world which is shared by everyone rather personal stuff

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27
Q

EPISODIC MEMORY

TRIGGER WORDS:
1. Per

are these complex or simple?
and why? what do they require

effort

A

personal memories or events which include contextual detail and emotive tone. They are quite complex as they are ‘time-stamped’ and require a conscious effort to recall

such as what you did yesterday or a teacher you liked

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28
Q

PROCEDURAL MEMORY

TRIGGER WORDS:
1. how

but what does it not require?

A

Memory of how to do things such as skills but don’t require a conscious effort to perform. These memories are automatic as the result of repeated practice

Eg. riging a bike or learning how to read

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29
Q

What did Baddeley (1966) investigate?

photo-recognition test

A

Found that in the photo-recognition test, ppts could remember names of former classmates with 90% accuracy within 15 years of graduation but this figure declined to 70% after 48 years

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30
Q

What is the order of the Multi-Store Model of Memory?

A

input - sensory register - attention - stm store - rehearsal - ltm store

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31
Q

Who researched the MSM?
and what did they do?

A

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
-showed ppts list of 20 words. Results showed serial position effect which is “when asking people to remember a list of words which is greater than the capacity of STM they have the tendency to remember words from the beginning and end of the list”

Primacy effect- remembering first 5 or so words from list
Recency effect- remembering the last 5 or so words from the end of a list

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32
Q

What are the 4 components to the WMM ?

A
  • central executive
  • visuo-spatial sketchpad
  • phonological loop
  • episodic buffer (added in 2000)
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33
Q

Who designed the WMM ?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

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34
Q

What is one strength, linked with different areas, about the WMM ?

A
  • different ares of the brain are activated depending on the task
  • Posner = PET scans, visual = posterior, auditory = lateral
  • support research
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35
Q

What is another strength, linking to support evidence, about the WMM?

A

support evidence from dual task research

  • Baddeley and Hitch 1976 found performance decreased when participants had to do task that required the same slave systems.
  • we can multitask if they require the same slave system e.g. articulatory and phonological
  • shows that the central executive is one of the components of working memory
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36
Q

What is a weakness, about the ecological validity, of the WMM?

A
  • lacks ecological validity
  • research is lab-based - lacks mundane realism
  • difficult to apply to everyday life
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37
Q

What are the 4 parts to the Cognitive Interview

A
  1. Report everything (RE)
  2. Context Reinstatement (CR)
  3. Recall in reverse order (RO)
  4. Change perspective (CP)
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38
Q

What is another weakness, to do with the central executive, about the WMM ?

A
  • Not entirely clear how this component works - Vagueness allows it to explain most experimental findings
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39
Q

Define PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

A

Past learning interferes with current attempts to learn something

40
Q

Define RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

A

Current attempts to learn something interfere with past learning

41
Q

WHO STUDIED?
The effect the environment has on recall
(scuba-divers one)

A

Godden & Baddeley

42
Q

WHO STUDIED?
The Weapon Focus Phenomenon
- the effect anxiety has on memory recall

A

Loftus & Burns – P’s shown violent film where a boy was shot in the face had less accurate EWT than those shown a non-violent version.

43
Q

WHO STUDIED?
Real-life event
- Canada shooting

A

Yuille & Cutshall (1986)

44
Q

WHO STUDIED?
Influence of leading questions & misleading questions
(car crash one)

A

Loftus & Palmer (1974)

45
Q

WHO STUDIED?

Post-event discussion

A

Gabbert et al. (2003)

46
Q

ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL

A

involves both linking the information to knowledge already stored and repeating the information.

47
Q

MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL?

A

The process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information.

48
Q

WHO STUDIED?

Comparing Cognitive interviews to standard interviews

A

Geiselman et al (1985)

Ppts viewed film on violent crime and after 48 hours were interviewed. T

49
Q

What is the WEAKNESS of the study of STM duration?

  • Brown; Peterson & Peterson

Testing STM is artifical

does not reflect everday life

A

P: A criticism of STM research is that it tends to take place in artifical situations

E: Much of the research involved trying to remember meaningless consonant syllables. Doesn’t reflect how we use memory in real life, where information tends to be more meaninful

E: However, we do also try to remember some essentially meaningless materials (e.g postcodes) so research has some relevance

50
Q

What are the STRENGTHS of the study of LTM duration?

- Bahrick et al

A

Unlike many memory experiments, this study used meaningful stimulus material (High-school yearbooks) and tested people for memories from their own lives

51
Q

What is the STRENGTH of the research for MSM?

- Glanzer & Cunitz

A

-

52
Q

AO3 STM (The Size of chunks matters)

A

R: Research has shown that the size of the chunk affects the number of chunks that can be remembered

E: Simon (1974) found that people have smaller memory span for larger chunks (e.g multi-syllable words, which take longer to rehearse, compared to single s words)

E: This supports the view that the STM has limited capcity, despite the benefits of chunking

53
Q

AO3 (The capacity of STM may be even more limited)

A

P: A criticism of research into STM is that miller’s findings have not been replicated

E: Cowan reviewed studies on the capacity of STM and concluded that STM is probably limited to 4 rather than 7 ‘chunks’.

E: This suggets that STM is not as extensive as the 7+/ 2 items claimed by Miller

54
Q

Individual differeneces (STM)

A

The capcity of STM of the chunk affects how many chunks you can remeber. Jacob also found that recal increased steadily with age 8 year

55
Q

Attention

A

If a person’s attention is focused on one of the sensory stores, then the data is transferred to STM

56
Q

Strengths of MSM

A
  • Lab studies eg Jacobs, Miller, Peterson & Peterson,Bahrick,Baddeley.
  • Brain scans eg Beardsley linked STM to prefrontal cortex, squire et al. Linked LTM to hippoacampus.
  • Case study of HM- Linked formation of new LTMs to hippocampus (Scoville and Milner).
57
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal

A

Repetion keeps information in STM but eventually such repetion will create a LTM.

58
Q

Retrieval

A

The process of getting information from LTM involves the information passing back through STM.

59
Q

Limitation MSM

A

MSM is too simple, STM and LTM are not unitary stores

LTM involves elaborative rather than just maintenance rehearsal.

60
Q

Further evaluation

A

STM not independant of LTM - Ruchkin et al. showed different brain activity for words and pseudo-words.

61
Q

Strengths of WMM

A
  • Hitch and Baddeley - P’s slower when dual tasks (CE + CE and articulatory loop.) Demonstrates
62
Q

Study on Long-term memory - Bahrick (1975)

A

Duration of LMT

tested 400ppl aged 17-74 on their memory of classmates. A photorecognition test consisted of 50 photos including some from their high-school year book. Participants were asked to list the names they could remember of those in their graduating class.

Results:
tested within 15 years–> 90% accurate in identifying faces
tested after 48 years –> 70% accurate for photorecognition

63
Q

Cases studies for the MSM?

Shallice and Warrington

A

‘KF’ brain damage from a motorcycle accident.

64
Q

Case study on MSM

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A

To test how long STM lasts when rehearsal is prevented

65
Q

The Working Memory Model (Baddely & Hitch 1974)

A

Suggests that STM is made up of the central executive, the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad and the episodic buffe

66
Q

Central executive

A

Most important component and is responsible for monitoring and co-ordinating the operation of the slave systems.

67
Q

Phonological Loop (PL)

A

Phonological Loop stores a limited number of sounds for brief periods. Has two components.

Phonological store (inner ear), which allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief period. 
Articulatory control system (inner voice), which allows sub-vocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store.
68
Q

Articulatory control system (inner voice)

A

Allows sub-vocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store.

69
Q

Phonological store (Inner ear)

A

Allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief period.

70
Q

Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS)

A

A limited capacity, temporary memory system for holding visual and spatial information.

71
Q

Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS): Logie (1995) VSS divided into:

A
  1. Visual Cache – passive visual store

2. Inner scribe – visual rehearsal mechanism

72
Q

Episodic Buffer

A

Integrates and manipulates material in working memory from different sources into chunks or episodes.

73
Q
  1. Comparison between MSM & WMM
    TRIGGER WORDS:
  2. offers better account of
A

WM offers better account of STM than MSM – not one store but several components.

74
Q
  1. Comparison between MSM & WMM
    TRIGGER WORDS:
  2. Inclues verbal maintenance
A

WM includes verbal maintenance rehearsal as an optional process, rather than the only means to get info in STM.

75
Q
  1. Comparison between MSM & WMM
    TRIGGER WORDS:
  2. WM process
A

WM emphasises process – MSM emphasises structure.

76
Q
  1. Comparison between MSM & WMM
    TRIGGER WORDS:
    WM holds most recently
A

WM immediate memory holds most recently activated LTM – MSM treats STM as a way station to and from LTM.

77
Q

Farah et al (1988) - KF

SUPPORT WMM

A

studied a patient called KF who had been involved in a motorcycle accident. The accident affected his verbal information but not his visual information. KF also performed better on spatial tasks than visual imagery tasks. This suggests that the STM is made up of separate stores and that one store can work without interfering with the other.

78
Q

What does Logie’s (1995) addition to WMM suggest

A

further suggest that the separate components are specialised for different modalities.

79
Q

Eslinger & Damasio (1985)
WEAKNESS OF WMM

TRIGGER WORDS:
studied patient EVR who had:

A

A cerebral tumour removed and performed well on reasoning tests suggesting CE was intact, yet performed poorly on decision making exercises suggesting the opposite.

80
Q

Bunge et al ( Counter point) – using MRI scans found significantly more activation in dual task condition than in a single task condition.
What does this indicate

A

This indicates increased attention demands. Include methodological evaluation, validity, reliability, generalisation, representativeness.

81
Q

What does the MSM explain?

A

Explains Memory as a Linear Structure and Process

82
Q 
Findings of (Baddeley 1966) - Findings of coding in STM and LTM
Evidence for Acoustic Encoding in STM
A

Words with similar sounds were much harder to recall using STM than words with dissimilar sounds. Similarity of meaning had on a very sight detrimental effect on STM.

83
Q 
Findings of (Baddeley 1966) - Findings of coding in STM and LTM
Evidence for Semantic Encoding in LTM
A

Recall was much worse for semantically similar words than for semantically dissimilar words. Recall from LTM was the same for acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar words

84
Q 
Conclusion for (Baddeley 1966) - Coding in STM and LTM
LINK SENTENCE
A

This suggests that STM relies heavily on acoustic encoding and LTM primarily makes use of semantic encoding.

85
Q

AO3 Baddeley (1966) - Brandimote et al - Found evidence of acoustic encoding in LTM - Wickens found evidnece for semantic coding in STM

A

Found that P’s used visual coding for visual task when prevented from using verbal rehearsal. Normal we translate visual codes into verbal code

86
Q

Peterson & Peterson (1959) - Aim

A

To test how long STM lasts when rehearsal is prevented

87
Q

Peterson & Peterson - Method
Each p’s was given 2 practice trials followed by 8 trials
Time intervals for counting backwards were in 3s

A

P’s shown a consonant trigram then asked to count backwards in threes or fours from a specified number to prevent them from rehearsing the consonant trigram.

88
Q

4 Basic principles of cognitive interviews

A
  • mental reinstatement
  • report everything
  • change order
  • change perspective
89
Q

When STM was test what happened to group A

Baddeley (1966)

A

They had the worst recall

90
Q

When STM was test what happened to group C

Baddeley (1966)

A

When LTM was tested 20 min later (semantically similar words) had the worst recall

91
Q

Coding

STM may not be exclusively acoustic

A

P: some studies have found that visual codes also used in STM

E: Brandimote et al (1992) found p’s used visual coding in STM when they were given pictures to remember and prevented from verbally rehearsing.

E: This suggests there might be multiple types of coding in STM and that STM is not exclusively accoustic

92
Q

Coding

LTM may not exclusively sematic

A

P: In general, LTM appears to be sematic, but this is not always the case.

E: Frost (1973) showed that LT recall was related to visual as well as semantic categories. Futhermore Nelson and Rothbart (1972) found evidence for acoustic coding in LTM.

E: Ths suggests LTM is encoded using acoustic, visual and sematic information, depending on the type of information being remembered.

93
Q

A criticism of research investigating LTM is that…

A

E - Frost (1972) showed that LTM recall was related to visual as well as sematic categories

E - Furthermore, Rothbart (1972) found evidence for acoustic coding in LTM

L - This suggests that LTM might be encoded using acoustic, visual and semantic information, depending on the type of information being remembered

94
Q

Patient HM

A

Suffered from seizures prior to memory loss. Lost memory on an operating table due to brain resection surgery. Transfer from STM to LTM was affected. Couldn’t remember the past 2 years of his life
–> supports MSM

95
Q

Clive Wearing PEEL -supporting MSM

A

P- Clive wearing’s case supports the multi-store model.
E- He suffered from brain damage which resulted in severe amnesia and was unable to transfer information from his STM to his LTM
E- This matters because it demonstrates that the MSM is essential when transferring info from STM to LTM. When it is broken we cannot form new memories, supporting the linear nature of the multi-store model.
L- Furthermore demonstrating that damage to any part of the MSM can lead to memory impairment.

A-Level AQA Psychology (98 decks)

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