Biopsychology Flashcards
What does the nervous system do?
- Helps us respond to a change in enviroment
- Enables us to coordinate our actions
- Relays messages from the brain to the body
What does the structure of the nervous system include?
- Central nervous system (CNS)
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- Somatic nervous system (SNS)
- Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
What does the Central nervous system consist of?
The brain & Spinal cord
What does the Peripheral nervous system consist of?
The Somatic and Autonomic nervous system
What does the Autonomic nervous system consit of
The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous system
The brain
Provides conscious awareness and is involved in all psychological processes.
What are the 4 main regions of the brain
The fairy princess Ophelia
- Frontal Lobe = High cognitve functioning. eg tramatic brain injury .
- Temporal Lobe = for processing emotions, language etc
- Parietal Lobe = Recieve imformation from the outside world eg touch, taste
- Occipital Lobe = Visual processing
- Cerebellum
Function of the Brain stem
Connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls involuntary processes such as breathing
Function of the spinal cord
REMEBER:
LOcated in the CNS so..
Transfers messages to and from the brain to the rest of the body
What region of the brain is responsible for higher order processes such as decison making?
Frontal lobe
What is the occipital region responsible for?
Processing visual information
What is the Peripheral nervous system?
Made up of neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
Receptors
Detect the change in the environment.
Effectors
TRIGGER WORDS;
- Organ
An organ, tissue, or cell that produces a response to a stimulus.
What is the Automonic nervous system?
What does it control?
Is it unconcious of concious
give and example?
What does it help us response and recover to?
Controls our unconscious actions such as blood temperature and homeostasis.
-Helps us respond to and recover from stressors
The similaries between the Brain and the spinal cord (CNS)?
TRIGGER WORDS:
- Reflexes
The brain stem and spinal cord both control involuntary processes
EXAMPLE: brain stem controls breathing and the spinal cord controls involuntary reflexes
What is the Sympathetic nervous system?
Activates the fight or flight system.
What is the Parasympathetic nervous system?
A subcomponent of the autonominc nervous that initiates a calm and return to equilibrium in preparation for the next sympathetic situation.
‘Rest and digest”
What is the somatic nervous system?
- Allows the CNS to communicate to the environment
Eg. sensory receptors that carry information to the brain and spinal cord
Motor pathways
The differences between the brain the spinal cord?
The brain provides conscious awarness and allows for higher-order thinking whereas the spinal cord allows for simple reflex responses.
The brain consists of multiple regions responsible for different functions,whereas the spinal cord has one main function.
The similaries betweens the somatic and autonomic nervous system? (PNS)
ANS
-The sympathetic nervous system responds to external stimuli by preparing the body for fight or flight
SNS
-the somatic nervous system responds to external stimuli (by carrying information from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain).
The differences between the Somatic and Autonomic nervous system?
The autonomic nervous system =
- consists of two sub-components
- autonomic nervous system only has motor pathways.
- controls internal organs and glands,
The somatic nervous system =
- only has one subcomponent
- has sensory and motor pathways
- controls muscles and movement.
How many divisons are in the Peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
4
Which chemicals are responsible for fight or flight?
Adrenaline
Which part of the nervous system are responsible for involuntary movements?
Somatic nervous system
How many sub-divisons are in the CNS?
2
The brain + Spinal cord
Which part of the nervous system is responsible for fight or flight?
Sympathetic nervous system
What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous system
What happens to the pupils when the Sympathetic nervous system is active?
Pupils dilate
what does ‘structure’ mean?
What it looks like
What does ‘function’ mean?
What the neuron does, What it’s role is
Neuron
TRIGGER WORDS:
- Cell
- transmitts
- nerve
A cell in the nervous system which transmits information to other nerve cells or muscle glands.
What are the 3 types of neurons?
Sensory
Motor
*Relay (Interneuron)
Where are the motor neurons located in?
Brain and spinal cord (CNS)
What do motor neurons do in terms of the PNS?
They control movement within the PNS
What are 2 types of motor neurons? `
Lower motor neuron: Spinal cord to muscles
Upper motor neuron: Brain and spinal cord
Dendrites
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. Recieve
2. other
SR
Recieve signals from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells.
Axon
A long slender fibre that carries nerve impulses, in the form of an electrical signal know as action potential.
Myelin Sheath
what does it insulate?
why is this an advantage?
TRIGGER WORD
- Electrical
insulates the axon so electrical impulses travel faster along the axon
Axon terminal
Connects neuron to other neurons (or directly to organs), using the process of synaptic transmission
Where are the relay neurons located
In the CNS
What is the functions of the relay neuron
TRIGGER WORDS:
what do they allow to communicate?
They allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate
What do relay neurons not require a myelin sheath?
relate to distance
Because they don’t need to travel far
Where are sensory neurons located?
from somewhere to CNS
In the PNS. They transmit messages from the PNS to the CNS
What does Pseudounipolar?
TRIGGER WORDS:
Two extentions
1. Gather receptor cells
2. transmits info to cns
The axon has two extentions with the cell body in the middle.
1 extention = gather the receptor cells which gather sensory input.
Other extention = transmits information to the spinal cord in the CNS.
What are sensory neurons activated by?
Sensory input
Difference between sensory neuron and relay neuron?
Related to insulation
Sensory neuron = Myelin shealth
Relay neuron = No Myelin shealth
Difference between sensory neuron and motor neuron?
Transmits messages
Sensory neuron = Transmits message from the PNS into the CNS
Motor neuron = transmits messages from CNS into PNS
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
Step 1 of sysnaptic transmission
TRIGGER WORDS:
- information passed ↓
- electrical
neuron
Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical impluse known as action potential.
Step 2 of Synaptic transmission
What happens once it reaches the end of axon?
TRIGGER WORDS
1. another neuron
Once action potential reaches the end of the axon it needs be transferred to another neuron or tissue, by crossing the synaptic gap.
Step 3 of synaptic transmission
what is at the end of the neuron (axon terminal)?
TRIGGER WORDS
- vesicle
At the end of the neuron (in the axon terminal) are the synaptic vesicles which contain neurotransmitters.
Excitation
Occur when neurotransmitter is what?
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. Stimulates
Occurs when the neurotransmitter is ‘excitatory’
-Stimulates activity in areas of the brain
Inhibition
Occurs when a neurotransmitter is what
TRIGGER WORDS:
1. Calms
Occurs when the neurotransmitter is ‘inhibitory’
Calms the brain and the nervous system
GABA
What type of neurotransmitter?
What does it do to the active of your Nervous system?
TRIGGER WORDS
- blocks
- decreases
An inhibitory neurotransmitter as it blocks, or inhibits, certain brain signals and decreases activity in your nervous system.
Acetylcholine
What type of neurotransmitter?
What is it responsible for?
Who has more of this?
Who has less?
- Voluntary
An excitatory neurotransmitter that is responsible for voluntary movement and it is high in people who have depression and low in people who have dementia.
Dopamine
Is it inhibitory or excitatory
Depending of what receptor binds to?
High in people with?
Low in people with?
A type of neurotransmitter Involved in learning and attention.
High level = Schizophrenia
Low = Parkinson’s Disease
Serotonin
Regulates mood and emotion
Low = Depression
Summation
A way of achieving an action potential.
Exitatory
Neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that an electrical impluse will be triggered in the postsynaptic neuron
Inhibtory
Neurotransmitter decrease the likeihood that an electrical impluse will be triggered in postsynaptic neuron.
Action potential
The information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical impluse
Synaptic transmission
- An action potential travels along the axon carrying an electrical impluse
- This causes vesicles in the postsynaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine
- These travel across synaptic gap in between the presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic neuron.
- Once they reach the postsynpatic neuron, the neurotransmitters binds to receptor site
- Any that do not, will go through the re-uptake for later use
The Endocrine system
Works alongslide the nervous system to regulate phisological processes. It is a network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messages called hormones into the bloodstream
The Pituitary gland
The ‘master gland’, whose primary function is to influence the release of hormones from other glands
What is the Pituitary gland controlled by
The hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
A region of the brain just above the pituitary gland that recieves information from many sources about basic functions of the body, this helps regulate the body
What are the two parts of the Pituitary gland?
The anterior (front) & The posterior (back)
Endocrine glands
Produce and secrete hormones, chemical substances that regulate the activity of cells or organs in the body
What are the Major glands of the endocrine system
Pituitary gland, Adrenal glands and reproductive organs
Hormones
Chemical that circulate in the bloodstream and are carried to target sites throughout the body
Target cells
Respond to particular hormone as they have receptors for that hormone
Is Serotonin a hormone or neurotransmitter?
Neurotransmitter
Is Dopamine a hormone or neurotransmitter?
Neurotransmitter
Is Testosterone a hormone or neurotransmitter?
Hormone
Is GABA a hormone or neurotransmitter?
Neurotransmitter
Is Melatonin a hormone or neurotransmitter?
Hormone
Is Oxytocin a hormone or neurotransmitter?
Hormone
The main endocrine gland
-Hypothalamus
- Piturarty gland
- Pineal gland
- Thymus
- Ovary
- Testicle
- Pancreas
- Adrenal gland
- Thyroid and Parathyroid glands
-
Name all Hormones
Melatonin Oestrogen ACTH and Oxytocin Insulin Thyroxine Testosterone Thymosin Cortisol/adrenaline
Where is Melatonin released?
Pineal gland
Where is Oestrogen released?
Ovaries
Where is ACTH and Oxytocin released?
Anterior pituitary/Posterior pituitary
Where is insulin released?
Pancreas
Where is Thyroxine released?
Thyroid
Where is Testosterone released?
Testes
Where is Thymosin released?
Thymus
Where is Cortisol/adrenaline released?
Adrenal Cortext/Adrenal Medulla
Does the Hypothalamus release a hormone?
No
Fight or flight
The sympathetic response that increases activity to areas designed to help you escape or prepare for fight.
What the difference between the ‘stressor’ and ‘stress’?
Stressor - Something that activates the stress response
Stress - A bodily response to a stressor
Why do pupils dilate? during stress
So more light enters the eye leading to better vision
Why do our lungs expand in response to adrenaline?
To increase oxygen level
Why do our Muscles tense in response to adrenaline?
Enable to prepare for action
Why does our HR increases in response to adrenaline?
To increase blood flow to organs and increase the movement of adrenaline around the body
Why does our BP increase in response to adrenaline?
For clotting purposes
Why do we sweat in response to adrenaline?
To cool the body down
Why is our digestion inhibited in response to adrenaline?
To increase energy for other essential functions
AO2 Fight or Flight
What is the role of Adrenaline?
- Triggers fight or flight
- Increases HR and BP
- Dilate pupils
- Expands lungs
- Muscle tension
Explain the first 2 process of fight or flight
- A person enters a potential dangerous or threating situation
- The brain detects the threat and the hypothalamus communicates it to the autonomic nervous system
Explain the 2nd two processes of fight or flight
- The sympathetic nervous system is activated and communicates the threat to the adrenal medulla
- This gland releases adrenaline into the bloodstream
Explain the 3rd two processes of fight or flight
- This triggers the fight or flight response
6. During this response, HR and BP increases
Explain the 4th two processes of fight or flight?
- Functions such as digestion and salivation are inhibited.
8. After the threat is removed, the parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to it’s normal state.
Beta Bias
Research on a Male sample that is then inaccuratley generalised to women
Why is beta bias a pronlem when research for the fight or flight response
AO3
These are physiological difference that should not be ignored, such as effect of oxytocin on the body
Lee and Harley (2012) A genetic basis to sex differences in the fight or flight response
(Individual differences)
AO3
Found evidence for gender differences in fight or flight.
- SRY gene, found in Y chromes directs male development. Promotes agression.
- Suggest that SRY gene may prime males responses to stress hormones (adrenaline)
Absense in females together with action of oestrogen and oxytocin may prevent this response to stress.
Taylor et all (2000) Tend & Befriend Response
(Individual differences)
AO3
Androcentrism
Men react to stress with a FOFR whereas women react with a “tend & befriend response”
Gender difference seen in many species eg rats
Women – protect and nurture their young (“tend”) and seek social contact and support from other females (“befriend”)
Von Dawans et all 2012
(Individual differences)
AO3
- Found acute stress can lead to greater cooperation and friendly behaviour
– could explain human connection in times of great crisis eg: 9/11 – explained because humans are social animals and the protective nature of human relationships has allowed us to survive as a race.
Gray (1988)
Oxytocin
AO3
1st phase of threat is to “stop, look and listen” – the freeze response – animal is hyper vigilant, alert to slightest sign of danger. Freezing focuses attention to help us look for new information to make the best response.
HPA axis
Describes the sequences of bodily activity in response to stress that involves the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal cortex
Effects of adrenaline
- Increased heart rate
- Pupils dilate
- Muscles tension
- Lungs expand
Effects of the parasympathetic system
- Muscle relaxation
- Salvation resumes
- Digestive system returns to main function
- HR Slows down
Nervous systems
- Pepherial
- Autonomic
- Somatic
- Sympathetic
- Parasympathetic
Parts of the body that play a role in fight or flight
- Adrenal Medulla
- Muscles
- Hypothalamus
- The brain
Parietal Lobe
Recieve imformation from the outside world eg touch, taste
Frontal Lobe
High cognitve functioning. eg tramatic brain injury .
Temporal Lobe
For processing emotions, language etc
Localisation of function
A theory that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) have certain locations or areas within the brain.
What is Broca’s Area?
An area in the frontal lobe of the brain, usually in the left hemisphere, related to speech production.
- Can comprehend language
- Unable to speak fluently
- Left frontal lobe
What is Wernicke’s area?
An area in the temporal lobe of the brain important in the understanding of language.
- Can comprehend language
- Left temporal
- Able to speak
What is the Motor cortex?
A region of the brain responsible for the generation of voluntary motor movements.
What is the Somatosensory cortex?
A region of the brain that processes input from the sensory receptors in the body that are sensitive to touch.
What is cognitive functioning?
Thinking processes.
Where is the Somatosensory cortex located?
It is located in the parietal lobe and receives incoming sensory information from the skin to produce sensations related to pressure, pain, temperature, etc.
Robertson (1995) discovery of the Somatosensory cortex?
He found that this area of the brain is highly adaptable, with Braille readers having larger areas in the somatosensory area for their fingertips compared to normally sighted participants.
Who found the Somatosensory cortex?
Brodmann
Location of Motor area
Frontal lobe
Location of Somatosensory area
Partial lobe
Location of Visual area
Occipital lobe
Location of Auditory area
Temporal
Function of Motor area
Responsible for voluntary movements by sending signals to the muscles in the body
Function of the Somatosensory
Responsible for recieving incoming sensory information from the skin to produce sensations related to produce sensations relation pressure, pain, temperature, etc
Function of the visual area
Responsible for recieving and processes visual information. eg colour, shape and movement
Function of the auditory
Responsible for analysing and processing acoustic information
Left, Right, or Both hemisphere?
Motor Area
The motor area on one side the brain controls muscles on the opposite side
Left, Right, or Both hemisphere?
Somatosensory Area
BOTH
The somasensory area on one side of the brain recicves sensory information from the opposite side of the body
Left, Right, or Both hemisphere?
Visual Area
BOTH
Information from the right-hand side visual field is processed in the left hemisphere, information from the left-hand side is processed on the right hemisphere
Left, Right, or Both hemisphere?
Auditory Area
BOTH
Information the left ear goes primarly to the right hemisphere etc
Localisation of function AO3
Language production may not be confined to Broca’s area alone
Evidence - Case studies
Dronkers et al. (2007) conducted an MRI scan on Tan’s brain, to try to confirm Broca’s findings. Although there was a lesion found in Broca’s area, they also found evidence to suggest other areas may have contributed to the failure in speech production.
Localisation of function AO3
Support for language centres for aphasia studies
Evidence for different functions of Broca’s and Wernicke’s area in a language production and understandings comes from the discovery that damage to these different areas results in different types of aphasia.
Localisation of function AO3
Communication may be more important than localisation
Research suggests that what might be more important how brain areas communicate with each other, rather than which specific brain regions control a particular cognitive process.
eg Dejerine (1892) case
Localisation of function AO3
There are individual differences in language areas
Herasty (1997) found that women have proportionally larger Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas than men, which can perhaps explain the greater ease of language use amongst women.
Localisation of Function AO3
Issues & Debates
This, however, suggests a level of beta bias in the theory: the differences between men and woman are ignored, and variations in the pattern of activation and the size of areas observed during various language activities are not considered.
Broca’s aphasia
- Caused by damage to left frontal lobe
- Speech production impaired
- Speech comprehension intact
Wernicke’s aphasia
- Caused by damage to left temporal lobe
- Speech production intact
- Speech comprehension impaired
Localisation of function AO3
Challenges to localisation: equipotentiality
Lashley, 1930) suggests that basic motor and sensory functions are localised, but that higher mental functions were not.
-Using rats he demonstrated using leisons that when the brain area is involved in memory is damaged, another part of the area can take over the memory function
Lateralisation
The idea that the two halves of the brain are functionally different and certain processes or behaviours are controlled by one hemisphere.
Lateralisation
What does the right side processes
The RIGHT side of the brain processes info from LEFT half of body (e.g visual info from the left eye)
Lateralisation
What does the Left side processes
The LEFT side of brain processes info from RIGHT half of body (e.g visual info from the right eye)
Hemispheric Lateralisation (AO1)
The brain has two hemispheres (right and left) which are connected by a bundle of fibres called the corpus callosum.
Lateralisation
What is the Left hemisphere dominant?
Left hemisphere is dominant for language
Lateralisation
What is Right hemisphere dominant for?
Right hemisphere is dominant for visual-motor tasks
Lateralisation
Brain processes are lateralised to a specific half of the brai
Commissurotomy
A type of surgery that some paitents with severe epilepsy may undergo to have their corpus callousum removed
What was the aim of Sperry (1968)’s study?
To investigate what functions of the brain are lateralised.
What was the procedure of Sperry’s study?
Compared split-brain patients to others with no hemisphere separation. Different activities were tried with the patients including touch of objects and visual presentation of stimuli to see how the different sides perform on tasks.
What were the findings of Sperry’s study?
LEFT visual field: they could not describe it (they often reported that there was nothing there).
RIGHT visual field: they could easily describe the picture shown to their right visual field.
What are the strengths and limitations you can think of, about using split brain paitents in research that aims to understand the brain better.
- Small numbers
- Specialised sample
- Idiographic approach taken
Localised regions of the brain
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Partial lobe
Occipital lobe
Features of Sperry’s study
11 participants
All right handed
All had brain surgery to remove corpous callosum
Aparatus created for the study
Results of sperry’s study
- Language lateralised to the left
- Drawing was better with left hand (right brain)
- Description was possible if information was presented in the RVF
- Visual motor skills are lateralised to the right
Advantages of Lateralisation
AO3
Increases neural processings capacity eg By using only one hemisphere to engage with a particular task (eg language or mathematical ability), this would lead to other hemisphere free to engage in another function.
Advantages of Lateralisation
AO3
Rogers et al
suggested that brain lateralisation enhances brain efficiency in cognitive tasks that demand simultaneous use of the hemispheres. For instance in domestic chickens they found that the chickens could hunt for food as well as look out for predators.
Lateralisation changes with age
AO3
Szaflarski et al. (2006)
Found that language became more lateralised to the left hemisphere with increasing age in children and adolescents, but after the age of 25 it decreased with each decade of their life
Brain plasicity
Refers the brains ability to change and adapt because of experience
Functional recovery
Is the transfer of function from a damaged area of the brain after trauma to undamaged areas
Language may not be restricted the left hemisphere
Gazzaniga’s (1998) split brain research had suggested that right hemisphere was unable to handle even the most basic language. Damage to the left hemisphere was found to be more detrimental to language function than damage to the right. JW patient: can speak about information presented to the right or left side of the brain
Limitations of split-brain research
-The procedure is rarely carried out nowadays and not enough research out there
Limitations of split-brain research
(AO3)
Andrewes (2001)
Many studies only have 3 p’s or even just 1 p’s – makes generalisation difficult as these patients had confounding physical disorders that made the split brain necessary. Results- failed to be replicated as they are ‘rogue’ cases.
Neuronal unmasking
Dormant synapses open to connections to compensate for nearby damaged area of the brain
Turk et al. (2002) - it could be argued that language may not be restricted to the left hemisphere
Discovered a patient who suffered damage to the left hemisphere but developed the capacity to speak in the right hemisphere, eventually leading to the ability to speak about the information presented to either side of the brain.
Maguire et al. (2000) Functional recovery
found that the posterior hippocampal volume of London taxi drivers’ brains was positively correlated with their time as a taxi driver and that there were significant differences between the taxi drivers’ brains and those of controls. This shows that the brain can permanently change in response to frequent exposure to a particular task.
Taijiri et al. (2013) Functional recovery
Found that stem cells provided to rats after brain trauma showed a clear development of neuron-like cells in the area of injury. This demonstrates the ability of the brain to create new connections using neurons manufactured by stem cells.
Aim of Maguire’s research
To examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brains of people with extensive experiences of spatial navigation
Findings of Maguire’s research
Kuhn et al
Plastcity
Found a significant increase in grey matter in various regions of the brain after p’s played video games for 30 min a day over two-month period
Elbert et al Functional recovery
Concluded the capacity for neural reorganisation after trauma is much greater in children than adults, meaning neural regeneration is less effective in older brain
Davidson et al
AO3
Demonstrated the permenant change in the brain generatedby prolonged meditation: Buddhist monk who mediated frequently had much greater activation of gamma waves than students with no experience of meditation.
Outline and evalutate split-brain research [8 marks]
Which area is responsible for processing sensation such as pain and pressure?
parietal lobe - Somatosensory cortext
Which area of the brain processes information such as colour and shape?
Occipital lobe - visual cortex
Which area of the brain processes information such as pitch and volume?
Temporal lobe - auditory cortex
Which area of the brain is responsible for voluntary movements?
Frontal lobe - motor cortex
Outline and evaluate one or more ways of studying the brain. [8 marks}
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a brain-scanning
Function = technique that measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task.
- An electroencephalogram (EEG) measures electrical activity through electrodes attached to the scalp.
Function = EEG scanners work on the idea that information is processed in the brain as electrical activity in the form of action potentials or nerve impulses.
Advantage of EEG AO3
Advantage of fMRI AO3
Conclude what is better
