Memory Flashcards
What is the Role of the central executive in the WMM?
Coordinates the activities of the visuo spatial sketchpad and phonological loop
Attention and Coordination
What is the role of the visuospatial sketchpad in the WMM?
Processes visual and spatial information
What is the role of the phonological loop in the WMM?
Processes written and spoken information
What is the role of the episodic buffer in WMM?
brings together the activities of the 3 subsystems to create a single memory
KF
Motorcycle accident
Damaged LTM
Recall verbal but not visual information
Shepard & Fang
Cube net
One group asked if arrows would meet
Other group allowed to fold
Took the same amount of time
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Gathercole & Baddeley
Track a moving live with a pointer
- verbal task
- angle of ‘F’
performed better on the verbal task as they were using 2 seperate stores
What are the 2 types of sensory memory?
Iconic - visual information
Echoic - auditory information
What is the Capacity and duration of sensory Memory?
Ulimited Capacity
Duration - a few milliseconds
What is the capacity and duration of STM?
Capacity - 5-9
Duration - 18 seconds
What is the capacity and duration of LTM?
Capacity - unlimited
Duration - infinate
HM
Eplilepsy
Hippocampus removed
could no longer encode from STM to LTM
memory assessed in 1955, he though the year was 1953 and he was 27 (actually 31)
Peterson - Memory
Meaningless trigrams
counting backwards in 3s/4s before recalling
STM - 18s
importance of rehearsal
What are the advantages of the MSM?
good understanding of structure and processes of STM
allows researchers to expand on the model
- increases validity
- provides evidence
Types of LTM
Procedural
- how to do things
Semantic
- information about the world
Episodic
- life experiences
What are the 2 explanations of forgetting?
Retroactive interference
- recent learning interfering with past learning
Proactive Interference
- past learning interfering with recent learning
2 types of retrieval failure
Environmental cues
Mental cues
Deep Sea diver study
words learnt underwater were better recalled underwater and vice versa
Rugby Players - recalling names of teams played over season
Time interval was the same for all players but the number of intervening games varied due to missed games
Those who played the most games should forget more due to interference
Johnson & Scott - EWT
Pen + Knife
A - discussion
- man walked out covered in grease
- holding pen
- 49%
B - heated discussion
- man walked out covered in blood
- holding knife
- 33%
Loftus - Slideshows
18 x 35mm slides
1.5 seconds
80 students
A - cheque handed to cashier
- 38.9%
B - gun pulled out
- 11.1%
Yerkes-Dodsons Law
Normal Distribution of the effect of anxiety on EWT
Yuille + Cutshall - Shooting in Canada - midleading Qs
13 people 4 months post shooting
misleading Qs - ‘a’ vs ‘the’
misleading information showed no effect
Christianson & Hubinette - bank robberies
110 witnesses of 22 real-life bank robberies
interviewed 15 months later
uncontrolled study - post-event discusiion
What are the characteristics of the cognitive interview?
context reinstatement
recall from a changed perspective
reporting everything
emotional details
What are the strengths of the cognitive interview?
provides more detail useful for a testimony
What are the weaknesses of the cognitive interview
more incorrect information
more time consuming
Who developed the cognitive interview?
Geiselman
Type of coding in Sensory Memory
Sense-specific
Type of coding in STM
Acoustic
Type of coding in LTM
Semantic
Who developed the MSS?
Atkinson + Shiffrin
What belief is the MSS based on?
We process memories in the same way which a computer processes information
Sensory register: duration, capacity, coding
D - 0.5s
Ca - unlimited
Co - sense-specific
STM: Duration, Capacity, Coding
D - 20s
Ca - 7+/-2
Co - acoustic
LTM: Duration, Capacity, Coding
D- unlimited
Ca - Unlimited
Co - semantic
LTM: Duration, Capacity, Coding
D - unlimited
Ca - unlimited
Co - semantic
The stroop effect
A colour will be named more quickly if written as a word than shown as the colour
Limitation of MSM
More than one type of STM is likely
Rehearsal can be elaborative
Unlikely memory is linear
2 Types of LTM
Explicit - memories we consciously try to recall
Implicit - not part of our conscience, formed from behaviours
Types of explicit memory
Semantic - language and knowledge about language
Episodic - events we have experienced
Type of Implicit memory
Procedural - knowledge of how to do behaviours
Support for MSM - Glanzar + Kunitz
Ppts given list of common words
Recalled more words from beginning (primacy effect) and end (serial position effect)
Words in the middle were forgotten due to limited capacity of STM
Support for MSM - HM
Surgery to relieve epilepsy which destroyed his hippocampus
Procedural memory still in tact but could not transfer from STM –> LTM
Anterograde amnesia
Support for MSM - Korsakoff’s syndrome
Effects chronic alcoholics, causing brain damage
Severely impairs LTM, little effect on STM
Duration study - Peterson
24 psych students
Recall meaningless trigrams after different intervals of time whilst counting backwards in 3s/4s
Duration study - Peterson results
3 sec interval - 80%
6 sec interval - 50%
18 sec interval - 10%
Duration study - Bahrick
392 ppts
15, 30, 48 years after graduation
Forgetting very slow due to overlearning
FR: 15-60%, 30-30%
NR: 15-90%, 48-80%
Capacity study - Sperling (sensory register)
4x3 grid of letters shown for 50milliseconds
Whole grid - 4-5/12
Single row - 3/4
Sensory register is finite - could not recall all letters as trace faded and infromation decayed
Capacity study - Jacobs (STM)
Growing string of either letters or digits
Could recall a string of 9 digits vs 7 letters
Capacity of STM increased with age due to learning or memory techniques
Coding studies - Baddeley
STM confused similar sounding words
LTM confused similar meaning words
What is the aim of the WMM?
Rectify some of the criticisms of the MSM by proposing a more dynamic view of STM
How does the WMM work?
Information in LTM is transferred to working memory when it is combined with new information and manipulated
Working memory can be used to perform cognitive functions such as mental arithmetic
Weakness of WMM
Leaves many unanswered Qs about LTM
Role of Central Executive
Filters information to determine what is attended to
Limited capacity and can only cope with one strand of information at a time
When attention needs to be divided, CE decides how resources are shared
Baddeley - CE study
Ppts generate a list of random numbers whilst simultaneously switching between numbers and letters on a keyboard
Found the task difficult as competing for the same CE resources
D’Esposito - CE study
FMRI scans show that the prefrontal cortex is activated when performing verbal and spatial tasks at the same time
CE evaluation
Little is known about the CE and it isn’t clear how it works or what it does
Vagueness means it can be used to explain a variety of results
Perhaps better understood as a component which diverts attention, rather than as a memory store
Role of the Phonological loop
Processes auditory information and the order of information
Primary acoustic store (inner ear)
Articulatory process (inner voice)
Trojani + Grossi - SC - Phonolgical Loop study
SC - brain damage effecting PL but not VSS
Suggests PL and VSS are 2 separate stores
Baddeley - word length effect - Phonological loop
Ppts recalled more short words in serial order than longer words
Capacity of PL set by duration of words, rather than number of words
Phonological loop - Evaluation
PET scans show different areas activated when performing verbal and spatial tasks
PL associated with evolution of human vocal language
Role of Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Stores visual and spatial information, including the relationship between them
Helps people navigate and interact with the physical environment
Information coded and rehearsed using mental pictures
Logie - VSS
Suggests sub-dividing the VSS into a visual cache that stores information in the form of colour, and an inner scribe which handles spatial relationships, rehearsed and transfers information in the visual cache to CE
Klauer + Zhao - VSS
Found more interference between 2 visual tasks than between a visual and spatial task
Gathercole + Baddeley - VSS
Ppts encountered issues with interference when tracking a moving line with a pointer and performing a spatial task
Little difficulty with a verbal task
Role of the Episodic Buffer
The EB was later added to the WMM to explain how information is integrated between the other subsystems
Attempts to correct issues caused by the limited capacity of the PL and VSS as well as problems with CE storage of visual and acoustic information
Brain Imaging Evidence of the Episodic Buffer
FMRI scans show right-frontal activation for combined verbal and spatial information
Posterior activation for non-combined information
What part of the brain is activated for combined verbal and spatial information?
Right-frontal
What part of the brain is activated for non-combined information?
Posterior
KF - support for WMM
Motorcycle accident
Damage greater for auditory infromation than visual
Suggests damage restricted to PL
Proactive interference study - Underwood + Postman
Both groups given word pairs to learn
2nd group given 2nd list where 2nd word was changed
control group remembered more
Retroactive Interference - Underwood
Nonsense syllables
tested 24 hours later
Concluded past memory experiments caused interference
Cue-Dependent Forgetting
Effective recall is effective on retrieval cues which are like labels in a filing system.
CDF happens when information in LTM can’t be accessed
CDF - Tulving + Pearlstone (categories)
48 words - 12 categories of 4
One group given headings for categories, others weren’t
Ppts not given headings recalled fewer words
Context-dependent forgetting
Failure happens with external retrieval cues, referring to the environment
State-dependent Forgetting
Failure happens with internal retrieval cues, referring to the environment
Support for Context-dependent forgetting
Abernathy - students performed worse on a test when performed by an unfamiliar teacher in an unfamiliar classroom
Support for Context dependent forgetting - Godden + Baddeley
Divers recalled information better underwater when learned underwater and vice versa
Support for state-dependent forgetting
Overton - drunk/sober
Darley - marijuana, hide money
Loftus + Palmer - Exp 1
Estimated speed for smashed vs bumped?
2 films of cars crashing
Smashed - 41mph
Bumped - 32 mph
Loftus + Palmer - Exp 2 (broken glass)
‘smashed’ - more likely to say yes
‘hit’
no suggestion
Loftus - ‘a’ vs ‘the’ broken headlight
‘a’ - 7%
‘the’ - 17%
Grease vs blood results
Grease - 49%
Blood - 33%
Purpose of context-reinstatement
Prevent context-dependent forgetting
Purpose of changing the order
Prevent people from reporting what is simply their expectations
Prevents dishonesty
Purpose of changing perspective
Disrupt the effect of expectations and also the effect of schema on recall
Average recall of digits in Jacobs stufy
9.3
Average recall of numbers in Jacobs Capacity study
7.3
What does sliding filament theory explain?
How muscle contraction is coordinated in myofibrils
Stages of Sliding Filament Theory
Depolarisation of the sarcolemma
Contraction of the Sarcomeres
Muscle Contraction
Muscle Relaxation
How is the sarcolemma depolarised in sliding filament theory?
An action potential arrives at the muscle cells, depolarising the sarcolemma
How are the Sarcomeres contracted in sliding filament theory?
Depolarisation of the sarcolemma causes the myosin and actin filaments to slide over each other, causing the Sarcomeres to contract
How does muscle contraction happen?
Multiple sarcomeres along the length of the myofibril contract simultaneously, causing the muscle fibres to contract.
Contraction of the muscle fibres causes the whole muscle to contract
What causes sliding filament theory to take place?
Globular heads on myosin filaments which allow myosin and actin filaments to bind together and slide past each other
Purpose of 2 binding sites on a myosin head
One site can bind to actin, the other can bind to ATP
What binding sites is found on actin filaments?
A binding sites for myosin heads, known as the actin-myosin binding site
What is tropomyosin?
A protein located on actin filaments
How does tropomyosin play an important role in muscle contraction?
It blocks the actin-myosin binding site
What happens to tropomyosin when muscle fibres are stimulated?
Tropomyosin is moved so that myosin heads can bind to the actin-myosin binding sites
What is the effect of the binding of actin and myosin?
They can slide past each other to cause muscle contraction
How is ATP produced in aerobic respiration?
Oxidative phosphorylase
What type of activity is aerobic respiration mainly used for?
Extended periods of low-intensity muscle use
How is ATP produced in anaerobic respiration?
Glycolysis and Lactate fermentation
How is lactate produced in anaerobic respiration?
Lactate fermentation
What is the effect of a build up of lactate?
Fatigue
What type of activity is anaerobic respiration mainly used for?
Short periods of high-intensity muscle use
What is phosphocreatine?
A molecule which can supply ATP for muscle creatine
What does phosphocreatine do during intense muscular effort?
Donates phosphate to ADP to produce ATP. The ATP produced is used to sustain muscle contraction
Ways of producing ATP for muscle contraction
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
Phosphocreatine
