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Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Phineas Gage

A

1848 - working on a rail line
Piece of iron through skull

Change in personality - loss of inhibition and anger

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2
Q

Motor Area

A

Located in the frontal lobe

Responsible for voluntary movement

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3
Q

Hitzig + Fritsch - motor

A

Different muscles are coordinated by different areas of the motor cortex

Electrically stimulating motor areas of dogs - muscular contractions in different areas of the body depending on where the probe was inserted

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4
Q

Somatosensory area

A

Located in the parietal lobe

Recieves incoming sensory information from the skin to produce sensations related to pain

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5
Q

Robertson - somatosensory

A

Somatosensory area of the brain is highly adaptable, with braille readers having larger areas in the somatosensory area for their fingertips compared to sighted participants

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6
Q

Visual area

A

Located in the occipital lobe

Recieves and processes visual information

Information from the right hand side is processed in the left hemispere and info from the left is processed in the right hemisphere

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7
Q

Auditory area

A

Located in the temporal lobe

Analysing and processing acoustic information

Info from the right goes to the left hemisphere and vice versa

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8
Q

Brocas aphasia

A

impaired ability to produce language

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9
Q

Wernickes aphasia

A

inability to extract meaning from spoken or written words

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10
Q

Peterson - brain scans

A

demonstrated Wernickes area was activeduring a listening task and Brocas area during a reading task

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11
Q

Dougherty - OCD

A

lesioning the cingulate gyrus improved symptoms of OCD

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12
Q

Neuroplasticty

A

The brains ability to change over time through learning and experience

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13
Q

Synaptic pruning

A

rarely used connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened

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14
Q

When do synaptic connections peak?

A

Age 2-3 with around 15,000 per neuron

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15
Q

Maguire - taxi drivers findings

A

significantly more grey matter in posterior hippocampus than in matched control group

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16
Q

Posterior hippocampus associations

A

Spatial and navigation skills in humans and animals

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17
Q

Draganski - brain scan of med students

A

Imaged the brains of medical students 3 months before and after final exams

Learning-induced changes were seen in the posterior hippocampus and the pariettal cortex, presumably as a result of learning

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18
Q

Process of Functional Recovery

A
  1. Axonal sprouting - growth of new nerve endings which connect up
  2. Denervation supersensitivity
  3. Recruitment of homologous areas on opposite sides of the brain
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19
Q

Negative Plasticity

A

Brains adaptation to prolonged drug use leads to poorer cognitive function in later life

60-80% of amputees have been known to develop phantom limb syndrome - thought to be due to cortical reorganisation in the somatosensory cortex

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20
Q

Bezzola - Age and Plasticity

A

40 hours of golf training produced changes in the neural representations of movement in ppts age 40-60

fMRI showed increased activity in motor cortex in novice golfers, suggesting more efficient neural representations after golfing

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21
Q

Seasonal Brain Changes

A

Suprachiasmatic nucleus regulates sleep/wake cycle

Shrinks in spring, expands in autumn

Most research done on animals

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22
Q

Application of functional recovery

A

Neurorehabilitation

Understanding axonal growth encourages new therapies

Constraint-induced movement therapy used on stroke patients

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23
Q

Cognitive Reserve - Schenider

A

Those who spent more time in education had a greater chance of a disability free recovery

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24
Q

Banerjee - Total Anterior Circulation Strokes

A

5 participants all treated with stem cells - all made a full recovery compared to typical 5%

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25
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation

A

The idea that the 2 halves of the brain are functionally differeny and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by on hemisphere

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26
Q

Where is Broca’s area?

A

left frontal lobe

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27
Q

Where is Wernickes area?

A

left temporal lobe

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28
Q

What is the function of the right hemisphere in relation to language?

A

Produce rudimentary words and phrases but contributes emotional context to what is being said

The Synthesiser

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29
Q

What is the function of the left hemisphere in relation to language?

A

The analyser

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30
Q

How is vision Contralateral and ipsilateral?

A

Each eye recieves information from both the left and right visual field, allowing visual areas to compare the slightly different perspective from each eye and aids depth perception

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31
Q

What is usually severed in a split-brain operation to reduce epilepsy?

A

Corpus callosum

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32
Q

What did Sperry do?

A

devised a system to study how 2 separated hemispheres deal with speech and vision

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33
Q

Sperry - Method

A

11 ppts - split-brain op

Describe what you see - LVF, RVF

Tactile tests - Objects placed in hand

Drawing task - reproduce picture shown to LVF and RVF

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34
Q

Fink - Hemispheric lateralisation

A

PET scans identify which areas active during visual processing task

ppts with a connected brain asked to attend to global elements of an image, regions of the RH were much more active

Finer details - LH dominated

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35
Q

Nielson - one brain (opposing evidence for LH analyser and RH synthesiser)

A

Analysed brain scans from over 1000 people aged 7-29

People use certain areas for different tasks but there is no evidence of a dominant side

Suggests the notion of left or right brained people is wrong

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36
Q

Lesley Rogers - Lateralised Chickens

A

Lateralised chickens could find food whilst watching for predators, but normal chickens couldn’t

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37
Q

Lateralisation vs plasticity

A

Lateralisation allows 2 tasks to be performed simultaneously with greater efficiency

Neural Plasticity could be seen as adaptive, following illness or trauma

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38
Q

Split-brain Support - Gazzaniga

A

Split brain ppts perform better than connected controls on certin tasks, such as spotting the ‘odd one out’

In the normal brain, LH cognitive strategies are ‘watered down’ by the inferior RH

Supports Sperrys findings that the left and right brain are distinct

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39
Q

Sperry - Generalisation Issues

A

Causal Relationships are hard to establish

Sperrys split-brain epileptic ppts compared to neurotypical group

Unique features could be due to epilepsy rather than the split brain

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40
Q

Sperry - Ethics

A

Op not performed for purpose of research

Procedures explained, full consent

Trauma of the operation may mean ppts did not fully understand implication

Subject to repeated testing over a lengthy period - causing stress

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41
Q

Sperry - describe what you see findings

A

RVF - could describe what they see, demonstrating the superiority of the left hemisphere

LVF - could not describe what was shown ‘nothing present

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42
Q

Sperry - tactile tests findings

A

Right hand - describe verbally what they felt, could identify object, could identify similar object

Left hand - could not describe verbally what they felt but could identify a similar object

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43
Q

Sperry - drawing task findings

A

RVF - right hand would draw the picture, but was never as clear as the left hand

LVF - Left hand would consistently draw clearer and better pictures

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44
Q

FMRI

A

Measure brain activity whilst a person is performing a task

Detects radiowaves from changing magnetic fields

Enables researchers to detect which regions of the brain are rich in oxygen and are active

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45
Q

Electroencephalogram - EEG

A

A record of tiny electrical impulses produced by the brain’s activity

By measuring characteristic wave patterns, the EEG can help diagnose certain conditions of the brain

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46
Q

Event-related Potentials (ERPs)

A

The electrophysiological response of the brain to a specific sensory, cognitve, or motor event can be isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data

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47
Q

Post-Mortem Examinations

A

The brain is analysed after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours during the persons lifetime can be linked to structural abnormalities in the brain

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48
Q

FMRI - strengths

A

Does not rely on the use of radiation

Risk free, non-invasive and straightforward to use

Very high spatial resolution. depicting detail by the mm

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49
Q

FMRI - weaknesses

A

Expensive

Poor temporal resolution

5s time lag

May not truly represent movemet-moment brai activity

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50
Q

EEG - Strengths

A

Studing stages of sleep

Diagnosis of neurological disorders

High temporal resolution

Detect brain activity at a resolution of a single millisecond

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51
Q

Event-related potentials - Strengths

A

Addresses limitations of EEG

Increased specificity to measurement of neural processes

Excellent temporal resolution

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52
Q

Use of ERPs

A

Measure cognitive functions and deficits such as allocation of attentional resources and the maintenance of working memory

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53
Q

ERP - Limitations

A

Lack of standardisation in ERP methodology between studies

In order to estalish pure data, background noise and extraneous material must be completely eliminated

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54
Q

Post-Mortem Examination - Strengths

A

Providing a foundation for early understanding of key processes in the brain

Broca and Wernicke - used post mortem decades before neuroimaging was even a possibility

HM - examined post mortem to identify areas of damage, which could then be associated with his memory deficits

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55
Q

Post-Mortem Examination - Weaknesses

A

Issue establishing causation

Observed damage may not be linked to deficits undr review but due to unrelated trauma or decay

Ethical Issues - HM lost his memory and could not provide informed consent

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56
Q

Endogenous Pacemakers

A

The body’s internal biological clock, which regulates biological rhythms

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57
Q

Exogenous Zeitgebers

A

External cues, helping to regulate internal biological clocks

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58
Q

What regulate biological rhythms?

A

Endogenous Pacemakers and Exogenous zeitgebers

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59
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

Main endogenous pacemaker
Lies in the hypothalamus
Linkked to areas of the brain linked to sleep and arousal

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60
Q

Where is the suprachiasmatic nucleus located?

A

Hypothalamus

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61
Q

Hormone which induces sleep

A

Melatonin

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62
Q

Melanopsin

A

A protein in the eye, sensitive to light, carries signals to the SCN to set the 24hr cycle

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63
Q

What can act as exogenous Zeitgebers in the absence of light?

A

Social cues, such as mealtimes

64
Q

Where does the word ‘Circadian’ come from?

A

Latin
‘Circa’ - about
‘dian’ - day

65
Q

Primary input to the sleep-wake cycle

A

Light

66
Q

What else, other than light, plays an important role in the sleep-wake cycle?

A

Homeostasis

67
Q

Why does homeostasis tell the body that there is a need for sleep?

A

Energy consumption

68
Q

When does the homeostatic drive from sleep peak?

A

Late evening

69
Q

When is body temp at its lowest and highest?

A

Lowest - early morning

Highest - early evening

70
Q

When does sleep occur, relating to temperature?

A

Sleep occurs when the core body temperature drops

Body temperature starts to rise towards the end of a sleep cycle, promoting feelings of alertness

71
Q

Siffre - cave study

A

Spent several extended periods of time underground
2 months in Alpa, 6 months in Texas
NO natural light
Cycle reset to 25 hours with a regular sleep/wake cycle
When he returned, he believed the date to be a month earlier than what it was

72
Q

Individual differences in sleep/wake cycles - Duffy

A

‘morning’ vs ‘evening’ people
There may be innate individual differences in circadian rhythms, which suggests that researchers should focus on these differences during investigations

73
Q

Buhr - temperature vs light and sleep

A

Fluctuations in temperature set the timing of cells in the body and caused tissues and organs to become active or inactive

Claimed that information about light levels is transformed into neural messages which set the body’s temperature

74
Q

What happens when circadian rhythms are disrupted?

A

Desynchronisation

75
Q

When do night workers experience a period of reduced concentration?

A

6am

76
Q

What effect has shift work been found tyo have on health compared to those who work more typical patterns?

A

Shift workers are 3x more likely to experience heart disease

77
Q

What did Soloman suggest that high divorce rates in shift workers may be due to?

A

Strain of deprived sleep and other influences such as missing out on important family events

78
Q

Chronotherapeutics

A

How medical treatment can be administered in a way which corresponds to a persons biological rhythms

79
Q

How does aspirin reduce the risk of a heart attack?

A

Lowers blood platelet activity

80
Q

When is aspirin most effective as treatment for a heart attack?
Why?

A

Last thing at night as heart attacks are most likely to occur first thing in the morning

81
Q

Infradian Rhythms

A

Last longer than 24hrs and can be weekly, monthly or annually

82
Q

How long does ovulation last

A

16-32hrs

83
Q

When does ovulation occur?

A

Roughly halfway through the menstrual cycle, when Oesrogen levels are at their highest

84
Q

What happens after ovulation?

A

Progesterone levels increase in preparation for the possible implantation of an embryo

85
Q

Seasonal Effective Disorder

A

People become depressed in winter as a lack of light results in a longer period of melatonin secretion, which has been linked to depressive symptoms

86
Q

What happened to the menstrual cycle of a women who spent 3 months in a cave?

A

went from 28 days - 25.7 days

87
Q

Why do menstrual cycles become synchronized?

A

Odor exposure

88
Q

Menstrual Cycle Synchronisation Exp - sweat sample

A

Sweat samples from one group of women rubbed onto the upper lip of another group of women, despite the fact that the women were seperated, their cycles became synchronised

89
Q

What do evolutionary psychologists suggest about synchronisation of menstrual cycles?

A

They provide an evolutionary advantage for groups of women, as the synchronisation of pregnancies means that childcare can be shared among multiple mothers who have children at the same time

90
Q

What is the effect of the menstrual cycle on behaviour?

A

Women expressed a preference for feminised face at the least fertile stage and a preference for masculine faces at the most fertile stage

91
Q

Where is seasonal affective disorder more common?
% of New Hampshire vs Southern Florida

A

Northern countries where the winter nights are longer

New Hampshire - 10%

Southern Florida - 2%

92
Q

Ultradian Rhythms

A

Last fewer than 24hrs and can be found in the pattern of human sleep

93
Q

Sleep stage 1&2

A

light sleep

Brainwave patterns become slower and more rhythmic, starting with alpha waves and progressing to theta waves

94
Q

Sleep stages 3&4

A

Deep sleep
Slow wave sleep stages - difficult to wake
Associated with delta waves

95
Q

Sleep stage 5

A

REM - dreaming

The body is paralysed and brain activity resembles that of an awake person

96
Q

How often does the sleep cycle repeat?

A

Every 90 minutes

97
Q

How many full sleep cycles can a person experience in a night?

A

Up to 5

98
Q

What did Tucker find about individual differences in sleep cycles?

Evaluation?

A

Significant differences in duration of each stage, particularly 3&4

may be innate individual differences in ultradian rhythms

Lab setting so not due to situational variables

Lacks ecological validity

99
Q

Randy Gardner - sleep deprivation experiment

A

stayed awake for 264hrs
Numerous problems such as blurred vision and disorganized speech

Slept for 15hrs after
and over several nights, recovered oly 25% ot total lost sleep. 70% stage 4, 50% REM

100
Q

BRAC

A

Basic Rest Activity Cycle

101
Q

What is the BRAC?

A

The idea that the sleep-wake cycle as a 24 hour circadian rhythm continues throughout the day with the difference being that we progressively move from a state if alertness to a state of physiological fatigue

102
Q

What is an issue with evidence supporting BRAC?

A

It is anecdotal and lacks scientific rigour

103
Q

Prodigious Violinists - BRAC study

A

Practice for 3 sessions a day, lasting no more than 90 minutes, with a break in order to recharge

This indicates that an ultradian rhythm exists, however these people are atypical so may not apply not everyone

104
Q

Dement + Kleitman - Study showing REM sleep is associated with dreaming

A

EEG
Controlled for effects of caffeine and alcohol
REM sleep highly correlated with dreaming - the more vivid the more active
Waking people during REM meant they could clearly recall their dream

105
Q

Which area of the brain did Phineas Gage damage?

A

Frontal lobe

106
Q

Longitudinal Fissure

A

Deep groove which separates the brain into 2 hemispheres

107
Q

Role of corpus callosum

A

Connects the 2 hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate

108
Q

Associations of the cerebral cortex

A

Higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotions, language and reasoning

109
Q

Role of the thalamus

A

Sensory relay for the brain, routing all of our senses, except for smell, into other areas of the brain

110
Q

Role of the limbic system

A

Processing emotion and memory

111
Q

3 main structures in the limbic system

A

Hippocampus

Amygdala

Hypothalamus

112
Q

Role of hippocampus

A

Learning and memory

113
Q

Role of amygdala

A

Our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories

114
Q

Role of hypothalamus

A

Regulates some homeostatic processes

Provides an interface between the nervous and endocrine system

Regulates sexual motivation and behaviour

115
Q

Where is the hindbrain located

A

The back of the head, and looks like an extension of the spinal cord

116
Q

What does the hindbrain contain?

A

Medulla

Pons

Cerebellum

117
Q

Role of Medulla

A

Controls automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure and heart rate

118
Q

Role of Pons

A

Connects the brain and spinal cord and is involved in regulating brain activity during sleep

119
Q

Brainstem

A

Medulla, Pons and midbrain together

120
Q

Role of the cerebellum

A

Recieves messages from muscles, tendons, joints and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement and motor skills

121
Q

What type of memories does the cerebellum process?

A

Procedural memories

122
Q

Brain structure associated with procedural memory

A

Cerebellum

123
Q

Location of Basil Ganglia

A

Base of forebrain

124
Q

Structure close to and interconnected with the basil ganglia

A

Thalamus and cerebral cortex

125
Q

Striatum

A

Affects motivation and reward anticipation

126
Q

Term meaning ‘black substance’

A

‘Substantia niagra’

127
Q

Substantia niagra

A

Meaning ‘black substance’

Appears darker than surrounding brain tissue, plays a role in reward seeking and addiction

128
Q

Role of putamen

A

Learning motor skills

129
Q

Role of caudate nucleus

A

Associative learning and in learning to inhibit certain actions

130
Q

Structure thought to be involved in controlling ones own actions

A

Basil ganglia, thalamus and cerebral cortxe

131
Q

Which structures does the forebrain contain?

A

Cerebral cortex

Pituitary Gland

Thalamus

132
Q

Structure consisting on the medulla, pons and midbrain

A

Brainstem

133
Q

What are hormones secreted into?

A

Bloodstream

134
Q

Effects of hormones compared to NTs

A

Slower to take effect but are longer lasting

135
Q

What controls hormone regulation?

A

Interactions between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland

136
Q

Where is the pituitary gland located?

A

Descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain and acts in close association with it

137
Q

Master gland

A

Pituitary gland

138
Q

Why is the pituitary gland referred to as the master gland?

A

It’s messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system

139
Q

Where is the thyroid gland located?

A

Neck

140
Q

What hormones does the pituitary gland release

A

Growth hormones, endorphins and other hormones which regulate fluid levels in the body

141
Q

2 disorders resulting from the thyroid gland producing too much thyroxine

A

Hyperthyroidism

Graves disease

142
Q

Location of the adrenal glands

A

On top of the kidneys

143
Q

Role of adrenal glands

A

Secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline

144
Q

Role of pancreas

A

Secretes hormone that regulates blood sugar levels: insulin and Glucagon

145
Q

Role of Gonads

A

Secrete sexual hormones which are important in reproduction

Mediate both sexual motivation and behaviour

146
Q

Male gonads

A

Testes

147
Q

Female gonads

A

Ovaries

148
Q

Pineal Gland

A

Small pea shaped gland in the brain, involved in the production and regulation of melatonin

149
Q

Parathyroid gland

A

Lies behind the thyroid gland and produces and regulates parathyroid hormone, which regulates the body’s minerals calcium and phosphate

150
Q

Thymus Gland

A

Located in the centre of the chest

Produce progenitor cells, which mature into T-cells, important in the immune response

151
Q

What does the hypothalamus release in response to stress?

A

Corticotrophin-releasing factor

152
Q

Role of corticotrophin-releasin factor

A

Causes the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

153
Q

Role of ACTH

A

Activates the adrenal glands to secrete a number of hormones into the bloodstream, including cortisol

154
Q

Role of cortisol in fight or flight

A

Stress hormone
Provides a boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor, preparing us to run away or fight

155
Q

Negative effect of cortisol

A

Weakens the immune system

Psychology (11 decks)

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