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Forensics Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the aim of top-down profiling?

A

Narrow the field of enquiry and list of likely suspects

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2
Q

How was top down profiling developed?

A

Hunt for the mad bomber who evaded capture of 16 years in the 40s and 50s

James Brussel drew an incredibly detailed picure which was accurate

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3
Q

What did James Brussel do?

A

Drew an incredibly detailed picture of the mad bomber, claiming he was an unmarried man, wearing a double-breasted suit

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4
Q

What is the top-down approach based on>

A

interviews with 36 of convicted sexual killers, including Ted Bundy and John Wayne Gacy

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5
Q

How does top down profiling sort information?

A

Organised and disorganised crime

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6
Q

Meketa study - top down profiling

A

looked at robberies

85% increase in solving crime using top-down approach

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7
Q

What are weaknesses of top-down profiling?

A

Not generalisable

Homology problem

Narrow field of offenders - ignoring possible suspects

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8
Q

Who developed bottom up profiling?

A

David Canter

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9
Q

What is the aim of bottom up profiling?

A

Generate a profule of the offender by looking at available evidence

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10
Q

Interpersonal Coherence

A

Behaviour in crimes reflects behaviour in real life

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11
Q

Forensic awareness

A

How much the offender has attempted to cover their tracks - indicates whether they have been questioned about crime in the past

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12
Q

What are the 2 ways of profiling in bottom up profiling?

A

Investigative Psychology

Geographic profiling

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13
Q

What are the two types of offenders in geographic profiling?

A

The Marauder

Then commuter

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14
Q

What is the Marauder?

A

Operates in close proximity to their base

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15
Q

The commuter

A

Travels a distance from their base

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16
Q

Canter and Heritage - SA

A

Found that when looking at sexual assault, the nature of offence was correlated with particular types of behaviour

This suggests that statistical techniques can be useful in identifying behaviour oatterns, supporting invstigative psychology

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17
Q

Lundrigan and Cantor

A

120 murder case involving serial killers, they disposed of bodies in various locations, forming a ‘centre of gravity’

Their base was located in the middle of this

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18
Q

Why are bottom up appraoches argued to be more scientific than top down?

A

Just the available evidence are used to create a profile, rather than attempting to fit offenders to pre-existing templates

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19
Q

Stages if the bottom up approach

A
  1. analysis of crime scene evidenc
  2. psychological theory and statistical analysis
  3. Creation of hypotheses of the probable characteristics of the offender
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20
Q

Railway Rapist

A

1975-86
23 women raped around London railway stations

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21
Q

Who was Lombroso?

A

The father of criminology

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22
Q

What did Lombroso suggest about criminals?

A

Criminals are genetic throwbacks, a primitive species who are biologically different to non-criminals

Savage, untamed - impossible to adjust to the demands of civilised society so turn to crime

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23
Q

How did Lombroso view offending behaviour?

A

Natural tendency, rooted in genes

Offending is innate, so criminals could not be blamed for their actions

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24
Q

What did Lombroso study?

A

The facial and cranial features of:

383 dead convicts

3839 living convicts

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25
Q

Atavistic form

A

Physical markers of the head and face that make criminals different from the rest of us

Physical markers are rooted in our biology

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26
Q

What % of criminals had atavistic features

A

40%

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27
Q

Example of atavistic features

A

Skull
- narrow sloping strong brow, strong jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymetry

Extra toes, nipples or fingers

Left handed

Insensitivity to pain

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28
Q

Atavistic features of murderers

A

Bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears

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29
Q

Atavistic features of sexual criminals

A

Glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips

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30
Q

Atavistic features of fraudsters

A

Thin lips

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31
Q

What was believed to be the cause of offedning behaviour prior to Lombroso?

A

Demonic possession

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32
Q

Goring - Lombroso opposing evidence

A

3000 offenders vs 3000 non-offenders

Concluded that there is no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with abnormal facial or cranial features

Though he did conclude that those who commit cime have lower intelligence

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33
Q

What 2 genes are linked to violent and criminal behaviour?

A

MAOA

CDH-13

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34
Q

MAOA gene

A

regulates serotonin in the brain

low levels of serotonin are implicated in impulsive behaviour

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35
Q

CDH-13 gene

A

substance abuse

ADHD

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36
Q

How were 2 genes linked to criminal and violent behaviour?

A

2015, Finland

800 violent criminals

5-10% of violent crime in Finland can be attributed to these genes

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37
Q

Christiansen - supporting evidence for genetic explanation of offending behaviour - twin study

A

3500 pairs of twins in Denmark
Concordance rates of offending behaviour

MZ - 35%
DZ - 13%

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38
Q

Crowe - Supporting evidence for the genetic explanation of offending

A

Adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal record

50% chance of having a criminal record by 18

Adopted children whose mum did not have a criminal record

5% risk of developing a criminal record by 18

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39
Q

Suomi - genetic explanation

A

Monkeys with MAOA gene

A - left with siblings to fend for themselves
More aggressive

B - raised with mum
Not aggressive

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40
Q

Reductionist vs holism - genetic explanation of offending

A

1/3 of men have the MAOA gene, however not all of these men are committing crime

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41
Q

Characteristics of ASPD

A

Risk taking
Dangerous / illegal actions
irresponsible
Lack of remorse
Impulsivity
Boredom from routine

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42
Q

Role of prefrontal cortex

A

Regulates emotional behaviour

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43
Q

What have brain scan shown about the pre-frontal cortex in relation to offending?

A

Violent criminals have a lowered activity level om the [re-frontal cortex compared to a non-offender

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44
Q

Raine - ASPD

A

Many brain imaging studies suggests people with ASPD have:

reduced activity in the pre-frontal cortex

11% reduction of grey matter in the pre-frontal cortex

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45
Q

Kandel & Freed - antisocial behaviour

A

Reviewed evidence of frontal lobe damage and antisocial behaviour

Found that people with this damage tend to show more impulsive behaviour and emotional instability

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46
Q

Farrington - ASPD

A

Studied a group of men with high ASPD scores - all experienced risk factors in childhood

Early childhood experiences vs born with neural differences?

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47
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Monkey sees action

Monkey does action

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48
Q

Keysers - ASPD - mirror neurons

A

Showed offenders a film of someone in pain
Only when they asked them to sympathise did they see their empathy reaction activate - mirror neurons

Suggests that those with ASPD have a neural switch controlling empathy

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49
Q

What 2 measures did Eysenck propose could measure personality

A

Extraversion, Introversion (E score)

Neuroticism, Stability (N score)

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50
Q

What is the biological basis of Eysencks theory of CP?

A

Personality traits are biological in origin and arise from the type of nervous system inherited

All personality traits have an innate, biological basis

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51
Q

Biological basis of extraverts

A

Underactive nervous system - ARAS, cortical arousal

seek excitement

Do not condition easily

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52
Q

Biological basis of a neurotic individual

A

Ineffective autonomic nervous system, constant state of fight or flight

general instability means their behaviour is difficult to predict

Nervous, over anxious

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53
Q

The Criminal Personality

A

Neurotic, Extravert

Score highly in terms of psychoticism

Cold, emotional, prone to aggression

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54
Q

Measuring the CP

A

EPI

E + N score

Later scale included psychoticism

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55
Q

How is socialisation linked with the CP?

A

Socialisation is where children are taught to delay gratification to become more socially orientated

Those with high E + N scores have nervous systems which made them difficult to condition so they would not learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety

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56
Q

Supporting evidence of CP - Farrington

A

2070 male prisoners, European, non-violent

2422 male controls

age 16-69

Prisoners scored higher than controls on psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism

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57
Q

Farrington - CP

A

Offenders tend to score high on P, but not on E + N

little difference in EEG measures between extraverts and introverts, causing doubt over the biological basis

Not all offenders have thde CP

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58
Q

Barot - cultural bias CP

A

Hispanic + Afro-Americam offenders
max security prison in NYC

6 groups based on criminal history and nature of offence

Criminals less extravert than non-criminal group

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59
Q

Bartol + Holanchock - barot comment CP

A

Suggested criminals were less extravert because they were of a different culture to that of Eysenck’s sample

Questions the generalisability of the CP

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60
Q

EEG

A

Measure of cortical arousal

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61
Q

KKohlbergs stages of Moral Development

A

Preconventional

Conventional

Postconventional

62
Q

Stages of the preconventional level of moral development

A
  1. Avoiding punishment
  2. Self-interest
63
Q

Stages of the conventional level of moral development

A
  1. Good boy attitude
  2. Law & order morality
64
Q

Stages of the postconventional level of moral development

A
  1. Social contract
  2. Universal principles
65
Q

Avoiding punishment - definition

A

Moral reasoning is based on direct consequences

66
Q

Self-interest - Definition

A

Actions are seen in terms of rewards rather than moral value

67
Q

Good boy attitude - Definition

A

Good behaviour is about living up to social expectations and roles

68
Q

Law & Order morality - definition

A

Moral reasoning considers societal laws

69
Q

Social Contract - definition

A

Rules are seen as social agreements that can be changed when necessary

70
Q

Universal Principles - Definition

A

Moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and justice

71
Q

Preconventional level response to Heinz Dilemma

A

Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is illegal, and he could be punished

72
Q

Good boy attitude response to Heinz Dilemma

A

Heinz should steal the drug because, as a good husband, he is expected to do whatever he can to save his wife

73
Q

Law & Order morality response to Heinz dilemma

A

Heinz should not steal the drug because he must uphold the law and maintain societal order

74
Q

Social Contract response to Heinz dilemma

A

Heinz should steal the drug because preserving human life is a more fundamental value than property rights

75
Q

Universal Principles response to Heinz dilemma

A

Heinz should consider non-violent civil disobedience or negotiation with the pharmacist.

The decision reflects a conflict between property rights and the sanctity of human rights

76
Q

2 Types of cognitive distortions in offending behaviour

A

Hostile Attribution Bias

Minimilisation

77
Q

Hostile Attribution Bias

A

Violence is associated with a tendency to misinterpret the actions of others

Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues, triggering a disproportionate, violent response

78
Q

Minimilisation

A

Deny or downplay seriousness of offence

‘Euphemistic label’ of behaviour

79
Q

Jusyte - HAB violent offenders

A

55 violent offenders
Shown ambiguous faces
Violent offenders significantly more likely to describe face as hostile

80
Q

Dodge + Frame - HAB Children

A

Showed children a clip of ‘ambiguous provocation’

Those identifies as ‘aggressive’ and ‘rejected’ prior to study interpreted the situation as more hostile than those identified as ‘non-aggressive’ and ‘accepted’

81
Q

Barbaree - Minimilisation study

A

26 incarcerated rapists

54% denied committing an offence at all

40% minimised the harm which they had caused the victim

82
Q

Moral Reasoning

A

The way in which a person thinks about right and wrong

83
Q

Kohlberg - Moral reasoning

A

Applied the concept of moral reasoning to offending behaviour

Found that a group of violent young youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youth, even after controlling for social background

84
Q

Kohlberg - link with criminality

A

Offenders more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level of Kohlbergs model

85
Q

Palmer + Hollin - Moral reasoning study

A

332 non-offenders vs 126 offenders

SRM-SF - 11 moral dilemma Qs

Offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than control group

Consistent with Kohlbergs predictions

86
Q

Moral reasoning of those who committed crime for financial gain

A

Those who committed crime for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes

87
Q

What type of crime is pre-conventional moral reasoning associated with?

A

Pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment

88
Q

Kohlberg - Thinking vs behaviour

A

Kohlbergs theory provides insight into the mechanics of the criminal mind

Offenders may be more childlike and egocentric

Moral thinking is not the same as moral behaviour

89
Q

Differential Association

A

Individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour through association and interaction with different people

90
Q

Sutherland - Scientific basis of differential association

A

The conditions said to cause crime should be present when crime is present and absent when crime is absent

Discriminate between those who commit crime and those who do not

91
Q

Differential Association - offending as a learned behaviour

A

Offending is learned through the norms and values of our social groups

Sutherland suggested that if the number of pro-crime attitudes outweighs the anti-crime attitudes, then the person will go on to offend

92
Q

Farrington - Study into Differential association method

A

Longitudinal study
411 boys, age 8
Deprived, inner city of South London

93
Q

Farrington - study into Differential association results

A

41% committed at least once
average 5 convictions age 19-28
Risk factor 8-10

94
Q

How does differential association mathematically predict the likeliness of an individual committing crimes?

A

By considering the frequency, duration and intensity of exposure to deviant and non-deviant norms and values

95
Q

What did Sutherland say when developing a set of scientific principles to explain all types of offending?

A

‘The conditions said to cause crime should be present when crime is present and absent when crime is absent”

96
Q

Sutherland - DA Discrimination

A

His theory is designed to discriminate between those who become offenders and those who do not, regardless of social class or background

97
Q

Where does learning occur most often?

A

With significant others who the child values and spends the most amount of time with

98
Q

What does differential association suggest about predicting crime?

A

It is mathematically possible to predict the likeliness of an individual committing crime

99
Q

What did Sutherland suggest about the cause of offending as a learned behaviour? - DA

A

If the number of pro-crime attitudes outweighs the anti-crime attitudes, then the person will go on to offend

100
Q

Socialisation In prison

A

Explains why so many convicts released from prisons go on to reoffend

Learn particular offending techniques from more experienced offenders through observation, imitation, or direct tuition

101
Q

Defense Mechanisms

A

Repression

Denial

Displacement

102
Q

Psychodynamic approach to offending behaviour

A

Roots of offending behaviour are formed in childhood experience

103
Q

Normal Superego formation

A

End of phallic stage, once the Oedipus complex is resolved

Internalize superego of same-sex parent

Morality principe

104
Q

Weak superego

A

Same-sex parent absent in phallic stage

Child can’t internalize a fully formed superego

105
Q

Deviant Superego

A

If a child internalizes an immoral or deviant Superego, they are unlikely to associate guilt with wrongdoing

106
Q

Alternative Explanations for a deviant superego

A

Genes are also inherited

Differential Association

107
Q

Overly Harsh Superego

A

Excessive punitive or harsh parenting style leads to a child with an overly Harsh superego

Crippled with guilt and anxiety

This may unconsciously drive the individual to commit crime to satisfy the egos overwhelming need for punishment

108
Q

44 Thieves results

A

17/44 prolonged separation
15/17 affectionless psychopaths

2/14 non-thieves experienced such separation

109
Q

2 Psychodynamic explanations of offending behaviour

A

Blackburn - inadequate superego

Bowlby - maternal deprivation

110
Q

Lewis - MD criticism

A

Interviewd 550 young people
MD poor predictor of future offending behaviour

Many other explanations for link between early separation and later delinquency

111
Q

Goreta - Overly Harsh Superego supporting evidence

A

10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment
10/10 showed disturbances in superego formation
All suffered unconscious feelings of guilt and need for self punishment

112
Q

Kochanska - Harsh parenting

A

Children raised by harsh parents are rebellious and rarely express feelings of guilt

113
Q

Aims of Custodial Sentencing

A

Deterrence

Incapacitation

Retribution

Rehabilitation

114
Q

Deterrence

A

Prisons designed to put somebody off the idea of committing crime

General deterrence - send a message to society that crime won’t be tolerated

Individual deterrence - prevent an individual from wanting to commit a crime again because of their experience

115
Q

Incapacitation

A

Offender taken out of society to prevent reoffending

Protects the public

Depends on offender and severity of crime

116
Q

Retribution

A

Society is enacting revenge for the offence by making the offender suffer

Eye for an eye

117
Q

Rehabilitation

A

Prison is not just to punish, but to reform

Upon leaving prison, offenders should be better adjusted and ready to take their place in society

Prison should give training / treatment programmes

118
Q

UK Recividism rates

A

45% of people in the UK who leave prison end up returning

119
Q

Suicide and Self-harm in prisons

A

Higher Suicide and self-harm rates

Male prisoners 3.9x as likely to die of suicide in prison

Greatest risk of suicide - single young men within 24hrs of imprisonment

120
Q

What disorders can the stress of environment in prisons may a person be at risk of following release?

A

PTSD

Bipolar

Depression

121
Q

Effects of institutionalization and labelling in prisons

A

Having adapted to prison life, inmates become very accustomed to life inside and can’t readjust to life outside of prison - leads to recidivism

Labelling - difficult to get a job / friendship circle

122
Q

Deindividualisation in prisons

A

Loss of indivdual identity can lead to aggression - Stanford prison experiment

123
Q

Overcrowding and lack of privacy in prisons

A

25% in an overcrowded accommodation

Inevitable effect on psychological state of prisoners

124
Q

Calhourn - Overcrowding study

A

Overcrowded rates

Increased aggression, hypersexuality and stress

125
Q

Where is Anger Management performed?

A

Both inside and outside of prisons

126
Q

How is Anger displayed?

A

Both cognitive and behavioural

127
Q

Anger as cognitive

A

Cognitive factors –> emotional arousal
–> aggressive acts

In some, anger is quick to surface, especially in situations that are percieved to be life-threatening or anxiety-inducing

128
Q

Anger - Behavioural

A

Getting angry is reinforced by feeling of control in that situation

CBT as a form of anger management

129
Q

3 stages of anger management

A
  1. Cognitive Preparation
  2. Skills acquisition
  3. Application Practice
130
Q

Anger Management - Cognitive Preparation

A

Exploring more rational responses to situations where a client may misinterpret the intention of another

131
Q

Anger Management - Skills Acquisition

A

Cognitive - Count to 10; understand world isn’t against him

Behavioural - Expressing emotions to peers

Physiological - meditation, relaxation practice

132
Q

Anger Management - Application to Practice

A

Therapist reenact anger-provoking situation

133
Q

Ireland - Anger Management SE

A

2 groups of offenders
One group in Anger Management for 12 sessions

3 measures: interview, behavioural checklist by prison officer, self-report questionnaire

92% of experimental group showed improvements with at least 1 measure
48% showing an improvement on checklist and self-report

134
Q

Restorative Justice

A

Offender and victim come face to face to discuss impact of crime

Form of rehabilitation for offender and may help victim

135
Q

Restorative Justice as a change of emphasis

A

Historically, offender = crime against state

RJ switched the needs of the state, to enforce law and punish, to the needs of the victim, to feel compensated and come to terms with the crime

136
Q

Braithewaite - RJ

A

‘Crime hurts, justice should heal’

RJ is less about retribution and more about reparayion

137
Q

2 Focuses of RJ

A

The survivor and their recovery

The offender and their rehabilitation

138
Q

Benefit of RJ to victim

A

Closure

Get answers

139
Q

Benefit of RJ to offender

A

Reflection

Chance to apologise

See the impact of their actions

140
Q

Benefit of RJ to society

A

Reducing recidivism rates

141
Q

Process of RJ

A

Agreed time and space

Neutral space
Facilitated by a trained mediator

Reparation

142
Q

Prisonisation

A

Refers to the way in which prisoners are socialized into adapting and ‘inmate code’

Behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged inside the institution

143
Q

Which countries have the highest recidivism rates in the world?

A

UK and US

144
Q

Country with lowest recidivism rates in Europe

A

Norway

145
Q

Norwegian Prisons

A

Much more open with a greater emphasis placed on rehabilitation and skills development than in the UK

Criticised as it is a soft option that does not sufficiently punish inmates

146
Q

% of inmates experiencing psychosis

A

25% women

15% men

147
Q

Token Economy

A

A system of rewards based on the principles of operant conditioning

148
Q

Elbers et Al - Review article of TE in prisons

A

TE yield positive short-term behavioural effects in individuals with learning disabilities or who are cognitively below average

149
Q

Milan & McKnee - TE in max security prison

A

Experimental research in max security prison

Combination of praise and tokens was more effective in changing behaviour than was the threat of punishment in the form of removal of social and/or recreational time

150
Q

Gendreau meta-analysis TE in prisons

A

69% of Prisoners encouraged to engage in prosocial behaviour, education and work assignments

151
Q

Strengths of TE

A

Easy to administer

Requires little expensive expertise to set up

152
Q

Weaknesses of TE in prisons

A

Long-term effectiveness is open to some speculation and doubt - maintenance beyond prison?

Not as effective with ‘old hands’ as they are with juvenile offenders

Psychology (11 decks)

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