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Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the Oedipus Complex? When does it occur?
How is it relevent to gender development?

A

A boy has incestuous towards his mother in the phallic stage and are jealous of their father for this reason, causing castration anxiety. in order to overcome this, the boy identifies with and internalises his fathers morals and beliefs, developing ‘male’ gender identity

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2
Q

What is the Electra Complex?
When does it occur?
How is it relevent to gender development?

A

A girl has incestuous feelings towards her father and is jealous of her mother
penis envy - mother took away her penis
occurs in the phallic stage
girl overcomes this by identifying with and internalising mothers morals and beliefs, adopting ‘woman’ gender identity

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3
Q

What did Jung suggest about overcoming the electra complex?

A

girls substitute penis envy with desire to have children, identifying with their mother

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4
Q

What are the issues with Freuds explanation of Gender Development?

A

Lacks scientific rigor, replicability and reliability
poor inter-rater reliability
far from universal, not generalisable

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5
Q

BSRI: support for parental influence
How many mothers?
How long was the observation?
Sampling method?
How many gendered toys?
Findings

A

32 mothers
10 minutes
Time sampling
2 masc, 2 fem, 3 neutral
mothers used gender appropriate toy which matched up with what gender they believed the child to be

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6
Q

What is the real-world application of androgyny and the BSRI

A

Encourages parents to raise their children free to assume the characteristics of either gender

however there was protest - some even claiming it was child abuse

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7
Q

What is the Role of oestrogen?

A

gender development in biological females
may lead to smaller brain size
breast development + menstrual cycle

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8
Q

What is the role of oxytocin?

A

The love Hormone
Produced in the pituitary gland
contenment and calmness
women - breastfeeding
men - orgasm and wound healing

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9
Q

What gene on the Y chromosome causes gender development in biological males and how?

A

SRY gene
Produces androgen, such as testosterone which leads to development of penis and testes

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10
Q

What is Hypogonadism?
Wang?

A

A condition in biological males where not enough testosterone is produced

227 men with hypogonadism given testosterone therapy
changes in physical features to appear more ‘masculine’

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11
Q

Dabbs - Prison

A

Urine Sample of offenders in prison
Violent offenders had higher testosterone levels

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12
Q

What is CAH? (conjenital adrenal hypoplasia)

A

high levels of testosterone in female foetus
these girls are often desribed as ‘tomboys’

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13
Q

How many bio females are effected by turners syndrome?
What are the physical effects?

A

1/2000
shorter, unerdeveloped ovaries lead to lack of periods

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14
Q

How many bio males does kleinfelters effect?
What are the physical effects?

A

1/1000
Taller, less muscular coordination
often infertile

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15
Q

What was Marcus + Overton study to support Kohlbergs theory? - Children shown photos

A

children shown ‘muddled’ photos of males and females where clothes and hairstyle could be interchanged
older children - gender remained constant regardless
younger children - gender could change based on outwards appearance

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16
Q

Bussey + Bandura study - Kohlbergs theory

A

children begin to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour before gender constancy is achieved

children as young as 4 report feeling ‘good’ about playing with the gender appropriate toy and ‘bad’ about doing the opposite

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17
Q

Bem: Naked babies
- Kohlbergs theory

A

Bem criticised the way in which gender constancy is measured

showed photos of naked babies and asked children to identify childs gender

40% of 3-5 year olds could show gender constancy, whereas according to K, this doesn’y happen until age 6

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18
Q

Nature-Nurture debate of Kohlbergs theory

A

Nature
- gender is a maturational process
- cross-cultural support

Nurture
- children search for confirmation of gender stereotypes in the constancy stage
-SLT

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19
Q

Why are girls generally more fluid in gendered behaviours than boys?

A

Male role models tend to exert more power.
Boys are more likely to be punished for gender inappropriate behaviour

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20
Q

Zosulu - Gender Schema
How many children?
What age did they show gender identity?

A

longitudinal study
82 Children
9-21 months
2x weekly report on childs language development
19 months - most children could show gender identity

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21
Q

Nature-Nurture debate of gender schema

A

schemas are learnt through experience BUT brain development is fundamental to cognitive stages

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22
Q

Gender Schema - Full explanation - Cultural bias

A

schemas influence what is seen as culturally acceptable gender behaviour so in a culture where perceptions have less rigid gender boundaries, we should see more off a crossover between gendered behaviours

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23
Q

What was the Notel, Unitel, Multitel study?

A

1970s, british columbia, surveyed 2 years later
Notel - no TV
Unitel - 1 channel
Multitel - multiple channels

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24
Q

what were the results of notel, unitel, multitel?

A

those with notel showed less rigid gender boundaries than those with multitel, suggesting the media has a significant influence on gender roles

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25
Q

What effect does the media have on self efficacy?

A

seeing a role model carry out gendered behaviours gives us the belief that we are capable of success

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26
Q

What were the findings of the Indian detective show with a female lead?

A

Girls who watched the show were more likely to see themselves working outside of the household

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27
Q

what were the behaviours of the Mundugumour tribe?

A

everybody, both male and female, was aggressive and hostile

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28
Q

What wee the behaviours of the Arapishe tribe?

A

everybody, both male and female, was gentle and responsive

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29
Q

what were the behaviours of the Tchambuli tribe?

A

women were dominant and organised village life, whereas men were passive and decorative

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30
Q

What evidence is there to suggest gendered behaviours are innate? (cultural similarities)

A

David Buss found consistent preferences in 37 countries and ALL continents

Women look for men with wealth and resources
Men look for youth and physical attractiveness

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31
Q

What is the difference in the BSTc in males and females?

A

the BSTc is typically 2x as large in males compared to females

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32
Q

Kruijver - Atypical Gender Development (mtf)

A

6 transgender females recieving Oestrogen
analysed brains post-mortem
size of BSTc correlated with that of a biological woman

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33
Q

Drummond - GID

A

age 3 - 25/25 with GID
ag 25 - 3/25 with GID

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34
Q

Heylens GID - twin concordance rates

A

MZ twins - 39%
DZ twins - 0%

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35
Q

atypical explanation - Freus (mtf)

A

extreme seperayion anxiety from mum before GI established
fantasises of fusion with mum - relieves anxiety
boy becomes mum and adopts woman GI

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36
Q

McClintock - Sambia New Guinea

A

Bio males born with female genitalia
at puberty, surge of testosterone caused them to develop ‘maleness’
accepted transition with ease

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37
Q

Why is androgyny thought to be advantageous?

A

A person can respond appropriately to many different situations in life

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38
Q

How was androgyny measured using the BSRI?

A

20 male, 20 female, 20 neutral items

ppts rated each one on a 7-point scale to how strongly they identified with each item

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39
Q

Results of the BSRI pilot study

A

Results broadly matched the ppts own sense of gender identity

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40
Q

Why is it arguable that androgyny may not be the most useful thing for mental health?

A

It could simply be that having more ‘masculine’ traits is advantageous, challenging the assumptions of Bem

41
Q

BSRI - reductionism

A

Reducing the complex concept of gender down to numbers may not reflect the reality of gender

42
Q

At what age does a foetus develop either male or female genitalia?

A

3 months

43
Q

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

A

Female foetus is exposed to high levels of testosterone in the womb, leading to more ‘tomboy’ behaviour in later childhood

44
Q

David Reimer

A

Born as Bruce
Botched circumcision resulted in his penis being burnt off
John Money - told parents to raise Bruce as a girl, Brenda
Brenda felt suicidal in teen years and when told the truth, immediately went back to a boy, David
David eventually took his own life

45
Q

What was John Moneys view on gender?

A

Gender is entirely caused by eenvironmental factors

46
Q

Van Goozen - hormone therapy

A

Transgender individuals receiving hormones typical of their preferred gender, demonstrated behaviours more typical of said gender, supporting the link between hormones and gender

47
Q

Tricker - Hormones vs placebos

A

No difference in behaviour amongst ppts injected with testosterone or placebos, weakening the link between hormones and gender

48
Q

Turners syndrome - nature vs nurture

A

difficulty drawing a line to see where nature ends and nurture begins

As those with turners syndrome may be treated more immaturely due to their childlike appearance, weakening the link between chromosomes and gender

49
Q

Androgen Insesnitivity Syndrome

A

genetic male is not exposed to enough testosterone in the womb, and can look physically female at birth

50
Q

Learning difficulties associated with Klinefelters

A

poor language / reading skills

poor memory / problem solving skills

51
Q

Learning difficulties associated with Turners syndrome

A

Poor spatial, visual & maths ability

Socially and physically immature

52
Q

Gender identity

A

Children have the ability to correctly identify themselves as male or female

Based on outwards appearance

53
Q

Gender stability

A

Recognition that the childs own gender will not change over time

However, they may still believe that other peoples gender may change

54
Q

Gender Constancy

A

The child recognize that gender is independent of outwards appearance, and that gender is constant across time and situation

55
Q

When do children stop being egocentric?

A

In the gender Constancy stage, children are no longer egocentric and can recognize that other peoples thoughts and feelings are different from their own

56
Q

What did Kohlberg believe about gender development in the Constancy stage?

A

Full gender understanding has developed and children become interested in, and manifest, gender typical behaviour

57
Q

Slaby and Frey - procedure investigating Kohlbergs stages

A

Asked children what gender they were as a baby and whether they will become a mummy or daddy

58
Q

Slaby & Frey - results investigating Kohlbers stages

A

Children did not recognise that gender at birth and in adulthood is stable until age 3-4, supporting the predictions of the theory

Another study they also found that children in the Constancy stage spent longer looking at same-sex adults, supporting the idea of role models

59
Q

Bussey and bandura - gender appropriate toys

A

Children as young as 4 reported feeling ‘good’ about playing with the gender appropriate toy and ‘bad’ about playing with the gender-inappropriate toy

60
Q

Methodological issues of Kohlbergs theory

A

Children may have an understanding of gender, but simply don’t have the vocabulary to express it

61
Q

Gender Schema

A

A cognititive framework constructed through observation of older children and adults gendered behaviour

62
Q

When do children begin to develop gender schemas?

A

As soon as they notice that people are organized into cateories of male and female

63
Q

How are schemas developed?

A

Through interactions with other children and adults, as well as through the media

64
Q

What are the 2 types of gender Schema suggested by Martin and Halverson?

A

In-group
Out-group

65
Q

What happens once a child has identified their in-group?

A

They begin to positively evaluate their own group and negatively evaluate the out-group

they then begin to ignore any information not consistent with their in-group schema, meaning gender has a very strong effect on what a child remembers and how they view the world

66
Q

What do children start to do by the age of 6 in regards to out-group schema?

A

Stop ignoring out-group schemas as their cognition develops begin to show an understanding that the opposite sex may want different things from them?

67
Q

Martin + Halverson - gender Schema experiment

A

Asked children under the age of 6 to recall pictures of people, and found they recalled more gender-consistent pictures than gender-inconsistent pictures

68
Q

Todd et Al - gender Schema observation

A

Observed nursery school aged children on their toy preferences

showed strongly gender-consistent preferences for toys, suggesting GI motivated young children to engage in gender-consistent behaviour

69
Q

Strengths of gender schema

A

Explains why children act in a gender-appropriate way before they reach gender constancy, through gender identity leading to socialisation into gender norms

explains why children are more likely to recall and imitate gender-consistent behaviour

70
Q

Why is gender Schema theory not a full explanation?

A

Focuses too much on cognitive factors and not enough on social factors like parental influence and peer pressure

Cannot explain why some boys prefer dolls and some girls prefer action figures

71
Q

How does gender Schema theory lack construct validity?

A

Internal mental processes cannot be seen and their development cannot be explained

72
Q

How did Freud believe children were born in terms of gender?

A

Freud believed children were born gender neutral and their gender identity developed in unconscious psychosexual stages

no visible differences between boys and girls in the oral and anal stage

73
Q

Wiszewska - attraction in women in regards to their relationship ti their father

A

Women who were well treated by and had close relationships with their fathers as children were attracted to men in pictures who resembles their fathers

Supports Freud’s idea of the Electra complex

74
Q

Strengths of the psychodynamic approach to gender development

A

Understand the strength of the unconscious mind in gender development and the mental health importance of early childhood experiences

75
Q

Weakesses of the psychodynamic approach to gender development

A

Hypotheses are untestable so lack scientific credibility

Cannot explain how children in same-sex or single parent households resolve the Oedipus / Electra complex and adopt gender identity

76
Q

Fagot + Leinbach - 4 year olds view on gender in traditional vs non-traditional households

A

4 year olds displayed more gender role stereotyping and used gender labels earlier in ‘traditional families’with a stay-at-home mother and working father than children in less traditional households

Suggests parents act as role models in terms of gender roles

77
Q

What did Slaby + Frey find about children in the Constancy stage?

A

Spent longer looking at same-sex adults, supporting the idea of role models

78
Q

Quiery - observation of parental intercation with children of either gender

A

Fathers interact more with sons
Mothers tend sons and daughters equally

Suggests fathers reinforce gender roles more than mothers

79
Q

Strength of SLT to explaining gender development

A

Explains gradually changing gender roles in society - as fathers or mothers swap or merge roles more regularly, so children have a range of gender-appropriate role models

80
Q

Weaknesses of SLT to explaining gender development

A

Cannot explain why siblings in the same household grow up with very different gender identities

Fails to explain why many children from non-traditional households may develop traditional gender identities

81
Q

Culture

A

The shared beliefs, values and practices of a particular group or society that shape individual behaviour and attitudes

82
Q

What does it mean if gender is learnt through socialisation, identification and internalization?

A

The surrounding culture will influence gender development, lending support to the argument that gender is a social construct

83
Q

How does Parenting work in Sweden?

A

Many fathers raise small children during a generously paid paternity leave, while their wives return to work, giving a non-traditional view of the male gender role

84
Q

Sadhin

A

A gender identity in India, referring to a biological woman who adopts male clothing, physical appearance and behaviour, but identifies as neither male or female, living a celibate life

85
Q

Mead - gender roles in Papua New Guinea

A

Gender roles were not fixed but culturally bound, challenging the idea of universal gender norms

86
Q

Whiting + Edwards - cross-cultural study into socialisation into gender roles

A

Cross-cultural study suggesting it was culturally universal for girls to be encouraged into child-caring roles and boys to be socialized into tasks like looking after animals

87
Q

Steinke - content analysis of TV programmes

A

14 popular TV science programmes

58% of scientists shown were male, and male scientists were portrayed with the masculine qualities of independence and dominance

88
Q

Lewis - childrens books

A

247 childrens books they investigated reflected gender stereotypes, with male activities seen as gender neutral, while books about girls containing much more specifically female material

89
Q

Strengths of the role of the media in influencing gender development

A

Used to promote positive non-traditional gender roles, leading to changes in what children are exposed to when developing their gender identity

Research into the influence of culture on GD can show how globalisation may be contributing to a reduction in the differences between masculine and feminine gender roles, implying that cultural differences are stronger than biological ones

90
Q

Weaknesses of research into the influence of the media on gender development

A

Correlational evidence

Naturalistic observation methods reduce the validity of findings as presence of researcher may change behaviour, causing observer effects

91
Q

What is required for a gender ddysphoria diagnosis?

A

Show at least 6 symptoms for at least 6 months

92
Q

How is gender dysphoria a deviation from social norms?

A

Social norms are typically male or female, however these norms are constantly changing

93
Q

How is gender dysphoria a statistical infrequency?

A

0.5% of UK diagnosed

94
Q

How does gender dysphoria deviate from ideal mental health?

A

Comorbidity with depression and anxiety

95
Q

Heylens Twin study on Gender dysphoria

A

MZ - 39%
DZ - 0%

small sample - 50 twin pairs

96
Q

Brain-sex theory

A

BSTc 2x as large in males
Size of BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than biological sex

97
Q

Social construcctivism & GID

A

Gender is a social construct and does not reflect the biological differences but is rather something created by society

Those with GID are simply experiencing confusion as they feel as though they must pick a side

98
Q

What does research into the influence oof culture of Gender development show us about globalisation?

A

Research into the influence of culture on Gender development can show how globalisation may be contributing to a reduction in the differences between masculine and feminine gender roles, implying that cultural differences are stronger than biological ones

Psychology (11 decks)

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