Gender Flashcards
What is the Oedipus Complex? When does it occur?
How is it relevent to gender development?
A boy has incestuous towards his mother in the phallic stage and are jealous of their father for this reason, causing castration anxiety. in order to overcome this, the boy identifies with and internalises his fathers morals and beliefs, developing ‘male’ gender identity
What is the Electra Complex?
When does it occur?
How is it relevent to gender development?
A girl has incestuous feelings towards her father and is jealous of her mother
penis envy - mother took away her penis
occurs in the phallic stage
girl overcomes this by identifying with and internalising mothers morals and beliefs, adopting ‘woman’ gender identity
What did Jung suggest about overcoming the electra complex?
girls substitute penis envy with desire to have children, identifying with their mother
What are the issues with Freuds explanation of Gender Development?
Lacks scientific rigor, replicability and reliability
poor inter-rater reliability
far from universal, not generalisable
BSRI: support for parental influence
How many mothers?
How long was the observation?
Sampling method?
How many gendered toys?
Findings
32 mothers
10 minutes
Time sampling
2 masc, 2 fem, 3 neutral
mothers used gender appropriate toy which matched up with what gender they believed the child to be
What is the real-world application of androgyny and the BSRI
Encourages parents to raise their children free to assume the characteristics of either gender
however there was protest - some even claiming it was child abuse
What is the Role of oestrogen?
gender development in biological females
may lead to smaller brain size
breast development + menstrual cycle
What is the role of oxytocin?
The love Hormone
Produced in the pituitary gland
contenment and calmness
women - breastfeeding
men - orgasm and wound healing
What gene on the Y chromosome causes gender development in biological males and how?
SRY gene
Produces androgen, such as testosterone which leads to development of penis and testes
What is Hypogonadism?
Wang?
A condition in biological males where not enough testosterone is produced
227 men with hypogonadism given testosterone therapy
changes in physical features to appear more ‘masculine’
Dabbs - Prison
Urine Sample of offenders in prison
Violent offenders had higher testosterone levels
What is CAH? (conjenital adrenal hypoplasia)
high levels of testosterone in female foetus
these girls are often desribed as ‘tomboys’
How many bio females are effected by turners syndrome?
What are the physical effects?
1/2000
shorter, unerdeveloped ovaries lead to lack of periods
How many bio males does kleinfelters effect?
What are the physical effects?
1/1000
Taller, less muscular coordination
often infertile
What was Marcus + Overton study to support Kohlbergs theory? - Children shown photos
children shown ‘muddled’ photos of males and females where clothes and hairstyle could be interchanged
older children - gender remained constant regardless
younger children - gender could change based on outwards appearance
Bussey + Bandura study - Kohlbergs theory
children begin to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour before gender constancy is achieved
children as young as 4 report feeling ‘good’ about playing with the gender appropriate toy and ‘bad’ about doing the opposite
Bem: Naked babies
- Kohlbergs theory
Bem criticised the way in which gender constancy is measured
showed photos of naked babies and asked children to identify childs gender
40% of 3-5 year olds could show gender constancy, whereas according to K, this doesn’y happen until age 6
Nature-Nurture debate of Kohlbergs theory
Nature
- gender is a maturational process
- cross-cultural support
Nurture
- children search for confirmation of gender stereotypes in the constancy stage
-SLT
Why are girls generally more fluid in gendered behaviours than boys?
Male role models tend to exert more power.
Boys are more likely to be punished for gender inappropriate behaviour
Zosulu - Gender Schema
How many children?
What age did they show gender identity?
longitudinal study
82 Children
9-21 months
2x weekly report on childs language development
19 months - most children could show gender identity
Nature-Nurture debate of gender schema
schemas are learnt through experience BUT brain development is fundamental to cognitive stages
Gender Schema - Full explanation - Cultural bias
schemas influence what is seen as culturally acceptable gender behaviour so in a culture where perceptions have less rigid gender boundaries, we should see more off a crossover between gendered behaviours
What was the Notel, Unitel, Multitel study?
1970s, british columbia, surveyed 2 years later
Notel - no TV
Unitel - 1 channel
Multitel - multiple channels
what were the results of notel, unitel, multitel?
those with notel showed less rigid gender boundaries than those with multitel, suggesting the media has a significant influence on gender roles
What effect does the media have on self efficacy?
seeing a role model carry out gendered behaviours gives us the belief that we are capable of success
What were the findings of the Indian detective show with a female lead?
Girls who watched the show were more likely to see themselves working outside of the household
what were the behaviours of the Mundugumour tribe?
everybody, both male and female, was aggressive and hostile
What wee the behaviours of the Arapishe tribe?
everybody, both male and female, was gentle and responsive
what were the behaviours of the Tchambuli tribe?
women were dominant and organised village life, whereas men were passive and decorative
What evidence is there to suggest gendered behaviours are innate? (cultural similarities)
David Buss found consistent preferences in 37 countries and ALL continents
Women look for men with wealth and resources
Men look for youth and physical attractiveness
What is the difference in the BSTc in males and females?
the BSTc is typically 2x as large in males compared to females
Kruijver - Atypical Gender Development (mtf)
6 transgender females recieving Oestrogen
analysed brains post-mortem
size of BSTc correlated with that of a biological woman
Drummond - GID
age 3 - 25/25 with GID
ag 25 - 3/25 with GID
Heylens GID - twin concordance rates
MZ twins - 39%
DZ twins - 0%
atypical explanation - Freus (mtf)
extreme seperayion anxiety from mum before GI established
fantasises of fusion with mum - relieves anxiety
boy becomes mum and adopts woman GI
McClintock - Sambia New Guinea
Bio males born with female genitalia
at puberty, surge of testosterone caused them to develop ‘maleness’
accepted transition with ease
Why is androgyny thought to be advantageous?
A person can respond appropriately to many different situations in life
How was androgyny measured using the BSRI?
20 male, 20 female, 20 neutral items
ppts rated each one on a 7-point scale to how strongly they identified with each item
Results of the BSRI pilot study
Results broadly matched the ppts own sense of gender identity
Why is it arguable that androgyny may not be the most useful thing for mental health?
It could simply be that having more ‘masculine’ traits is advantageous, challenging the assumptions of Bem
BSRI - reductionism
Reducing the complex concept of gender down to numbers may not reflect the reality of gender
At what age does a foetus develop either male or female genitalia?
3 months
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Female foetus is exposed to high levels of testosterone in the womb, leading to more ‘tomboy’ behaviour in later childhood
David Reimer
Born as Bruce
Botched circumcision resulted in his penis being burnt off
John Money - told parents to raise Bruce as a girl, Brenda
Brenda felt suicidal in teen years and when told the truth, immediately went back to a boy, David
David eventually took his own life
What was John Moneys view on gender?
Gender is entirely caused by eenvironmental factors
Van Goozen - hormone therapy
Transgender individuals receiving hormones typical of their preferred gender, demonstrated behaviours more typical of said gender, supporting the link between hormones and gender
Tricker - Hormones vs placebos
No difference in behaviour amongst ppts injected with testosterone or placebos, weakening the link between hormones and gender
Turners syndrome - nature vs nurture
difficulty drawing a line to see where nature ends and nurture begins
As those with turners syndrome may be treated more immaturely due to their childlike appearance, weakening the link between chromosomes and gender
Androgen Insesnitivity Syndrome
genetic male is not exposed to enough testosterone in the womb, and can look physically female at birth
Learning difficulties associated with Klinefelters
poor language / reading skills
poor memory / problem solving skills
Learning difficulties associated with Turners syndrome
Poor spatial, visual & maths ability
Socially and physically immature
Gender identity
Children have the ability to correctly identify themselves as male or female
Based on outwards appearance
Gender stability
Recognition that the childs own gender will not change over time
However, they may still believe that other peoples gender may change
Gender Constancy
The child recognize that gender is independent of outwards appearance, and that gender is constant across time and situation
When do children stop being egocentric?
In the gender Constancy stage, children are no longer egocentric and can recognize that other peoples thoughts and feelings are different from their own
What did Kohlberg believe about gender development in the Constancy stage?
Full gender understanding has developed and children become interested in, and manifest, gender typical behaviour
Slaby and Frey - procedure investigating Kohlbergs stages
Asked children what gender they were as a baby and whether they will become a mummy or daddy
Slaby & Frey - results investigating Kohlbers stages
Children did not recognise that gender at birth and in adulthood is stable until age 3-4, supporting the predictions of the theory
Another study they also found that children in the Constancy stage spent longer looking at same-sex adults, supporting the idea of role models
Bussey and bandura - gender appropriate toys
Children as young as 4 reported feeling ‘good’ about playing with the gender appropriate toy and ‘bad’ about playing with the gender-inappropriate toy
Methodological issues of Kohlbergs theory
Children may have an understanding of gender, but simply don’t have the vocabulary to express it
Gender Schema
A cognititive framework constructed through observation of older children and adults gendered behaviour
When do children begin to develop gender schemas?
As soon as they notice that people are organized into cateories of male and female
How are schemas developed?
Through interactions with other children and adults, as well as through the media
What are the 2 types of gender Schema suggested by Martin and Halverson?
In-group
Out-group
What happens once a child has identified their in-group?
They begin to positively evaluate their own group and negatively evaluate the out-group
they then begin to ignore any information not consistent with their in-group schema, meaning gender has a very strong effect on what a child remembers and how they view the world
What do children start to do by the age of 6 in regards to out-group schema?
Stop ignoring out-group schemas as their cognition develops begin to show an understanding that the opposite sex may want different things from them?
Martin + Halverson - gender Schema experiment
Asked children under the age of 6 to recall pictures of people, and found they recalled more gender-consistent pictures than gender-inconsistent pictures
Todd et Al - gender Schema observation
Observed nursery school aged children on their toy preferences
showed strongly gender-consistent preferences for toys, suggesting GI motivated young children to engage in gender-consistent behaviour
Strengths of gender schema
Explains why children act in a gender-appropriate way before they reach gender constancy, through gender identity leading to socialisation into gender norms
explains why children are more likely to recall and imitate gender-consistent behaviour
Why is gender Schema theory not a full explanation?
Focuses too much on cognitive factors and not enough on social factors like parental influence and peer pressure
Cannot explain why some boys prefer dolls and some girls prefer action figures
How does gender Schema theory lack construct validity?
Internal mental processes cannot be seen and their development cannot be explained
How did Freud believe children were born in terms of gender?
Freud believed children were born gender neutral and their gender identity developed in unconscious psychosexual stages
no visible differences between boys and girls in the oral and anal stage
Wiszewska - attraction in women in regards to their relationship ti their father
Women who were well treated by and had close relationships with their fathers as children were attracted to men in pictures who resembles their fathers
Supports Freud’s idea of the Electra complex
Strengths of the psychodynamic approach to gender development
Understand the strength of the unconscious mind in gender development and the mental health importance of early childhood experiences
Weakesses of the psychodynamic approach to gender development
Hypotheses are untestable so lack scientific credibility
Cannot explain how children in same-sex or single parent households resolve the Oedipus / Electra complex and adopt gender identity
Fagot + Leinbach - 4 year olds view on gender in traditional vs non-traditional households
4 year olds displayed more gender role stereotyping and used gender labels earlier in ‘traditional families’with a stay-at-home mother and working father than children in less traditional households
Suggests parents act as role models in terms of gender roles
What did Slaby + Frey find about children in the Constancy stage?
Spent longer looking at same-sex adults, supporting the idea of role models
Quiery - observation of parental intercation with children of either gender
Fathers interact more with sons
Mothers tend sons and daughters equally
Suggests fathers reinforce gender roles more than mothers
Strength of SLT to explaining gender development
Explains gradually changing gender roles in society - as fathers or mothers swap or merge roles more regularly, so children have a range of gender-appropriate role models
Weaknesses of SLT to explaining gender development
Cannot explain why siblings in the same household grow up with very different gender identities
Fails to explain why many children from non-traditional households may develop traditional gender identities
Culture
The shared beliefs, values and practices of a particular group or society that shape individual behaviour and attitudes
What does it mean if gender is learnt through socialisation, identification and internalization?
The surrounding culture will influence gender development, lending support to the argument that gender is a social construct
How does Parenting work in Sweden?
Many fathers raise small children during a generously paid paternity leave, while their wives return to work, giving a non-traditional view of the male gender role
Sadhin
A gender identity in India, referring to a biological woman who adopts male clothing, physical appearance and behaviour, but identifies as neither male or female, living a celibate life
Mead - gender roles in Papua New Guinea
Gender roles were not fixed but culturally bound, challenging the idea of universal gender norms
Whiting + Edwards - cross-cultural study into socialisation into gender roles
Cross-cultural study suggesting it was culturally universal for girls to be encouraged into child-caring roles and boys to be socialized into tasks like looking after animals
Steinke - content analysis of TV programmes
14 popular TV science programmes
58% of scientists shown were male, and male scientists were portrayed with the masculine qualities of independence and dominance
Lewis - childrens books
247 childrens books they investigated reflected gender stereotypes, with male activities seen as gender neutral, while books about girls containing much more specifically female material
Strengths of the role of the media in influencing gender development
Used to promote positive non-traditional gender roles, leading to changes in what children are exposed to when developing their gender identity
Research into the influence of culture on GD can show how globalisation may be contributing to a reduction in the differences between masculine and feminine gender roles, implying that cultural differences are stronger than biological ones
Weaknesses of research into the influence of the media on gender development
Correlational evidence
Naturalistic observation methods reduce the validity of findings as presence of researcher may change behaviour, causing observer effects
What is required for a gender ddysphoria diagnosis?
Show at least 6 symptoms for at least 6 months
How is gender dysphoria a deviation from social norms?
Social norms are typically male or female, however these norms are constantly changing
How is gender dysphoria a statistical infrequency?
0.5% of UK diagnosed
How does gender dysphoria deviate from ideal mental health?
Comorbidity with depression and anxiety
Heylens Twin study on Gender dysphoria
MZ - 39%
DZ - 0%
small sample - 50 twin pairs
Brain-sex theory
BSTc 2x as large in males
Size of BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than biological sex
Social construcctivism & GID
Gender is a social construct and does not reflect the biological differences but is rather something created by society
Those with GID are simply experiencing confusion as they feel as though they must pick a side
What does research into the influence oof culture of Gender development show us about globalisation?
Research into the influence of culture on Gender development can show how globalisation may be contributing to a reduction in the differences between masculine and feminine gender roles, implying that cultural differences are stronger than biological ones
