Memory

Question 1

What is the coding of STM and LTM and how did the researcher find it?

Answer 1

Baddeley
STM = acoustic
LTM = semantic
- Immediate recall worse with acoustic, recall after 20 minutes worse with semantic.

Question 2

Give one strength and weakness about Baddeley’s research on memory coding.

Answer 2

1) It used artificial material:
- No personal meaning, may use semantic for STM if meaningful, limited real-world application?

2) Identified two memory stores:
- Demonstrated separate memory stores which lead to the MSM of memory.

Question 3

What is the capacity of the STM?

Answer 3

1) Jacob:
- Researcher recalls digits until they can’t be recalled correctly. 9.3 numbers, 7.3 letters on average.

2) Miller:
- Span of 7+/-2 = improved by chunking. (7 is magic number).

Question 4

One strength and one weakness about research into capacity.

Answer 4

1) Jacobs had a valid study:
Bopp and Verhaeghen
- Early so could lack control but later studies with control reflect same results.

2) Miller over-estimated capacity:
Cowan
- Concluded capacity is closer to 4 +/- 1 chunk.

Question 5

What is the duration of the STM and LTM?

Answer 5

1) STM:
Petersen and Petersen
- 24 students given consonant syllables to remember and 3 digit number to count backwards from. 80% after 3s, 3% after 18s.

2) LTM:
Bahrick et al:
- American participants ages 17-74 face recognition and free recall of high school photos. 40 years after = 70% in photo recognition, free recall much less (30%) accurate.

Question 6

One strength of research into duration of LTM and weakness of research into STM duration.

Answer 6

1) Bahrick et al. external validity:
- Real life meaningful memories.
- Shepard, found recall was lower if pictures were meaningless

2) P and P used meaningless stimuli:
- Syllables don’t reflect real life memories.
- Lacks external validity.

Question 7

What are the 3 types of LTM?

Answer 7

1) Episodic memory:
- Memories of events that are complex and time-stamped. Require conscious recall.

2) Semantic memory:
- Knowledge of the world (combination of encyclopaedia and dictionary). Not time-stamped and less personal. Everyone can get this knowledge.

3) Procedural memory:
- Stores memories for actions and skills. Recall without awareness or effort. Become automatic with practice.

Question 8

Give 2 evaluative strengths of different types of LTM.

Answer 8

1) Supporting evidence for episodic memory:
- HM and Clive Wearing both had difficulty recalling past events; but semantic memory almost unaffected.
Semantic worked but not episodic.

2) Real-world application:
Belleville et al.
- Memory loss in old age is episodic specific. Interventions for older people designed to target episodic had improved memory compared to control group.

Question 9

Give 2 evaluative limitations of different types of LTM

Answer 9

1) Problems with clinical evidence:
- Based off case studies about damage done to memory.
- Cannot control variables like what was the condition of the brain before damage, may already be effected.

2) Conflicted findings from neuro-imaging.
Buckner and Peterson
- Semantic memory is left prefrontal cortex. Episodic is right.
Tulving et al.
- Complete opposite.

Question 10

Who made the Multi-Store model of memory?

Answer 10

Atkinson and Shiffrin

Question 11

MSM model
How does stimuli pass into the sensory register, and what is the:
- Duration
- Capacity
- Coding
(of the SR)

How does SR pass info onto the STM?

Answer 11

Passes into SR using our senses.
1) less than 0.5s
2) High
3) Modality specific

By attention

Question 12

MSM model
What is the:
- Duration
- Capacity
- Coding
(of the STM)

And how does it pass info on to the LTM?

Answer 12

1) 18s (unless rehearsed)
2) 5-9 items
3) Acoustic

Maintenance rehearsal

Question 13

What is the:
- Duration
- Capacity
- Coding
(of the LTM)

Answer 13

1) Up to a lifetime
2) Unlimited
3) Semantic

Question 14

Give two evaluative weaknesses of the MSM.

Answer 14

1) Evidence suggesting more than one type of STM:
Shallice + Warrington
- KF had amnesia, STM for digits was poor but when listening but better when he read them to himself.

2) MSM only explains one type of rehearsal:
Craik and Watkins
suggest there is maintenance rehearsal but elaborative (linking info) is needed for LTM transfer.

Question 15

Give one strength of the MSM.

Answer 15

Research support:
Baddeley
- Mix up similar sounding words when using STM but similar meaning words when we use LTM. Two independent stores.
=> Counterpoint:
- Studies used artificial stimuli and not everyday information. Low external validity.

Question 16

Who made the STM Working Memory Model?

Answer 16

Baddeley and Hitch

Question 17

What does the Central Executive do?

Answer 17

Supervisory role:
- Allocates subsystems tasks and has a very limited capacity.

Question 18

What comes under the Phonological Loop, and what do they do?

Answer 18

Deals with auditory information:

1) Articulatory process:
- Allows rehearsal to keep it in WM while needed.

2) Phonological store:
- Stores words you hear

Capacity is two seconds of speech.

Question 19

What is the system that deals with visual information in the WMM.

Answer 19

The Visuo-spatial sketchpad:

1) Visual cache:
- Stores visual data

2) Inner scribe:
- Records arrangement of objects in vision.

Capacity is three or four objects.

Question 20

What connects the CE and the LTM in the WMM and what does it do?

Answer 20

Episodic buffer:

Integrates data from other stores, maintains sense of time sequencing and links to the LTM.

Question 21

Give 2 evaluative strengths of the WMM

Answer 21

1) Dual task performance studies support the VSS:
Baddeley et al.
- Found participants had more difficulty performing two visual tasks than doing a visual and verbal task because both compete for same attention.

2) Clinical evidence:
Shallice and Warrington
- KF had brain damage. Poor verbal ability but could process visual info. Phonological loop damaged; others intact.
=> Counterpoint
- Case study

Question 22

Give one evaluative criticism of the WMM.

Answer 22

Lack of clarity about CE:
- Doesn’t really explain anything.
- More to it than simply just paying attention surely?
- Baddeley admitted it was the least understood section but the most important.

Question 23

What is interference?

Answer 23

Interference forgetting occurs when two pieces of information disrupt each other and we cant get access even they are in the LTM store.

Question 24

What are the two types of interference?

Answer 24

1) Proactive interference:
- Old memories disrupting new ones.
2) Retroactive interference:
- New memories disrupting old ones.

Interference is worse when memories are similar.

Question 25

Describe McGeoch and McDonald’s (1931) study

Answer 25

Procedure:
- Participants memorised a list of words.
- Then given a new list to learn.
- 6 groups (one was control) so 5 different/ new lists, e.g. antonyms, synonyms.
- Recall of second list measured

Findings:
- Most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall.

Question 26

Give 2 evaluative strengths of interference as an explanation of forgetting

Answer 26

1) Support from drug studies:
Coenen and van Luijtelaar
- Taking diazepam after learning reduced interference as new information could not reach memory processing areas of the brain when compared to placebo group after one week. Retrograde facilitation.

2) Research support in real life:
Baddeley and Hitch
- Asked rugby players to recall every rugby team they had played, week by week. Those who played most had poorest recall. Interference operates day to day, external validity increase.
=> Counterpoint
- Interference in everyday situations is unusual because necessary conditions are rare.

Question 27

Give one evaluative limitation of the Interference theory of forgetting.

Answer 27

Interference effects may be overcome using cues:
Tulving and Psotka
- Gave participants lists of words to memorise.
- Recall of first list was 70% but fell with each new one.
- When given a cued test recall rose back to 70%.

Question 28

Describe retrieval failure

Answer 28

Cues are stored at the same time as memory, cannot access memory without cue.

Encoding Specificity Principle:
- Forgetting occurs if cues at coding and retrieval are different.

There are meaningful links (STM = Short Term Memory) and unhelpful ones:
- Context-dependant
- State-dependant

Question 29

Who conducted the procedure to test context-dependant forgetting and what was the procedure?

Answer 29

Godden and Baddeley:

• Divers learned list of words, recalled the same words in same/ different context (land/water).
• Recall was 40% lower when context for learning and recall were different.

Question 30

Who conducted the procedure to test state-dependant forgetting and what was the procedure?

Answer 30

Carter and Cassaday:

• Participants learned and recalled list of words when on drug/ not on drug (antihistamine).
• Recall was poorest when internal states at learning and recall were different.

Question 31

Give 2 evaluative strengths of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting.

Answer 31

1) Range of supporting evidence:
Godden and Baddeley
- Research with deep-sea divers.
Carter and Cassady
- On and off drug learning and recall
Eysenck and Keane
- Most important/main reason for forgetting in LTM.
=> Counterpoint
- Baddeley states context for learning and recall have to be extremely different to have effect.

2) Context-related cues have everyday applications:
- Common in every day life, e.g. going upstairs and forgetting what you went upstairs for.
- When we have trouble remembering something, we should go and revisit environment in which you first experienced.

Question 32

Give one evaluative limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting.

Answer 32

Context effects vary in recall and recognition:
Godden and Baddeley
- Replicated underwater experiment but as recognition test.
- No context-dependant effect was found.
- Retrieval failure is limited to explaining recall failure only and not recognition.

Question 33

What are the two types of consequences come from leading questions?

Answer 33

1) Response-bias
- Influences kind of answer given.

2) Substitution
- Interference with eyewitness memory; distorting accuracy.

Question 34

Who conducted the study on leading questions and what did it involve?

Answer 34

Loftus and Palmer

Procedure:
- 45 participants watched clips of car accidents.
- Each asked ‘how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?’
- 5 groups, all had a different verb e.g contacted, smashed.

Findings:
- Contacted produced a response of 31.8mph.
- Smashed produced a response of 40.5mph

Question 35

What are the two possible consequences of discussing an event after it happened?

Answer 35

1) Memory contamination:
- Mixing of memories with others.
2) Memory conformity:
- Go along with others for social approval (NSI or ISI).

Question 36

Who conducted the study on post-event discussion and what did it involve?

Answer 36

Gabbert et al.

Procedure:
- Paired participants watched a videoed crime, but each saw different elements (angles) of the video.
- Both discussed it, after watching it, then individually recalled.

Findings:
- 71% recalled aspects of the event that they did not see but had from a PED.
- Control group with no discussion had no errors.

Question 37

Give one positive evaluation for eyewitness testimony.

Answer 37

Real-world application:
- Practical use for police officers, consequences of using inaccurate EWT can be very serious.
- Loftus says police need to be careful about how to phrase questions so not to distort memory.
- Improves legal system works.
=> Counterpoint
- Film clips create less stress than real event which may produce more accurate EWTs.

Question 38

Give a limitation of Loftus + Palmer’s study?

Answer 38

Used artificial materials:
- watching clips of accidents very different from experiencing it.
- Yuille + Cutshall (1986) found witnesses of a roberry had high accuracy.

Question 39

Give two negative evaluations for misleading information in eyewitness testimony.

Answer 39

1) Evidence against substitution:
Sutherland and Hayne
- Central details recalled better than peripheral.
- Central focus of memory is hard to distort which is unpredicted by substitution explanation.

2) Evidence challenging memory conformity:
Skagerberg and Wright
- Participants discussed events of same video with different haired muggers.
- After PED they reported a blend of what they saw and heard.
- Memory distorted by contamination only not conformity.

Question 40

Describe Johnson and Scott’s research into EWT anxiety effect.

Answer 40

Johnson and Scott

Procedure:
- Participants sat in a waiting room, and heard an argument where one person immerged.
1) Low-anxiety situation:
- A man comes through with pen.
2) High-anxiety situation:
- Heated argument, followed by someone holding a knife with blood on it.

Findings:
- 49% of participants in low anxiety identified him successfully and 33% of participants in high anxiety.
- Tunnel theory suggests focus on the knife (object of most stress) so weapon focus not person.

Anxiety may have a NEGATIVE effect.

Question 41

Describe Yuille and Cutshall’s research into the effect of anxiety on EWT.

Answer 41

Yuille and Cutshall

Procedure:
- Real-life crime, where the thief was shot dead.
- 21 witnesses, 13 agreed to participate.
- Participants interviewed 4-5 months after incident.

Findings:
- Very accurate, little change after 5 months for main aspects.
- Participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate.
- 88% compared to 75% for the least-stressed witnesses.

Anxiety may have a POSITIVE effect.

Question 42

Who came up with the Inverted-U theory and what is it?

Answer 42

Yerkes and Dodson:
- The relationship between arousal/ stress and performance is an inverted U.

Deffenbacher:
- Reviewed 21 EWT studies and found optimum levels of anxiety produces best recall.

Question 43

Give 1 limitation of Johnson and Scott’s study.

Answer 43

May test surprise not anxiety:
Pickel
- May focus on weapon because they are surprised not scared.
- Used scissors, handgun, wallet and raw chicken: accuracy was poorer for unusualness.

Question 44

Give one strength of the negative and positive effects anxiety has on EWT.

Answer 44

Strength for negative effects:
Valentine and Mesout
- Heart rate monitors on people in London dungeon.
- Higher anxiety led to poorer recall of target person.

Strength for positive effects:
Christianson and Hubinette
- Interviewed bank robbery witnesses.
- 75% accuracy over all witnesses but best accuracy in direct victims rather than bystanders.
=> This study was conducted a long time after the event after it had been released to the news. Many confounding variables could not be controlled.

Question 45

How is the Inverted-U theory too simplistic?

Answer 45

• Anxiety has many elements including cognitive, emotional, behavioural and physical.
• I-U only assumes poor performance is linked to physiological arousal.

Question 46

Describe the cognitive interview.

Answer 46

CI is based on the psychological understanding of memory and has its origins in the cognitive approach. Devised by Fisher and Geiselman. Rapport established using four techniques.

1) Report everything:
- Recall every detail even trivial, could be cue to more recall.

2) Reinstate the context:
- Mentally return to original scene, acts as a context-dependant cue.

3) Reverse the order:
- Recall events backwards to avoid effect of expectation and reduces dishonesty.

4) Change the perspective:
- Recall from another persons point of view, reduces effect of schema on recall.

Enhanced cognitive interview (ECI):
- Fisher et al. developed additional elements. Reduce EW anxiety, open questions and speaking slowly.

Question 47

Give two evaluative weaknesses of the CI.

Answer 47

1) Some elements are more useful:
Milne and Bull
- Found each element was equally valuable.
- But combination of report everything and reinstate the context produced the best recall than others individually.
- Cast doubt on credibility of the rest of the CI.

2) CI is time-consuming:
Kebbel and Wagstaff
- Police reluctant to use it as it takes to much time and requires special training the Police don’t have funding for.
- May be better to just focus on key elements of CI.

Question 48

Give an evaluative positive of the ECI.

Answer 48

Research support:
Konhken et al
- Meta analysis of 55 studies comparing normal interview vs CI.
- 41% more correct info than standard interview.
=> Counterpoint
- CI and especially ECI also produces more inaccurate information as well (quantity over quality).