Gender

Question 1

Outline sex and gender

Answer 1

Nature:
Sex is biological and innate, chromosomes.
- e.g XX (female) or XY (male).

Nurture:
Gender is a psychological status.
- The attitudes, behaviours and roles associated with different genders.

Gender dysphoria:
Sex and gender don’t correlate.

Question 2

Outline Sex-role stereotypes

Answer 2

Expectations shared by culture or group about how women or men should behave.

Sex-role stereotypes may or may not represent something real, but there is no biological basis for these and they result in sexism.

Research confirms sex-role stereotypes in the media:
Furnham and Farragher
- Men seen as autonomous and professional, women seen as domestic familial roles.

Question 3

Define androgyny in psychology

Answer 3

Balance on M and F traits, behaviours and attitudes.

Androgyny is a positive attribute:
Bem
- high androgyny associated with psychological well-being, not a mixture of different proportions. A balance.

Question 4

Outline measuring androgyny

Answer 4

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BMI)

Items are masculine, feminine or neutral.

60 trait questions (equal balance of M,F and N) measured on 7 point scale.

Four categorisations:
- Masculine (High M Low F)
- Feminine (Low M High F)
- Androgynous (High M and F)
- Undifferentiated (Low M and F)

Question 5

Give two positive evaluations for androgyny

Answer 5

1. Quantitative approach:
   - Very useful when quantifying a dependent variable. However, not fully representative. Combine BSRI with qualitative measure to best study gender identity.
2. Valid and reliable:
   - 50 m and 50 f judged 200 traits. Piloting with 1000 students showed BSRI reflected gender identity (validity). Retest a month later had similar scores (reliable).
   => Counterpoint:
   - Lacks temporal validity? Ideas of what is masculine and feminine has changed from 40 years ago.

Question 6

Give one negative evaluation of androgyny

Answer 6

Lack of self-awareness:
- People may lack insight into their gender identity (social construct). Scales (such as BSRI) lack objectivity.

Question 7

Outline the role of chromosomes

Answer 7

23 pairs, 23rd pair determines biological sex.
- Babies sex determined by whether sperm cell is carrying X or Y.

XX = Female
XY = Male

Y chromosome has SRY gene, causes androgens to be produced in male embryo.

Question 8

Outline the role of hormones

Answer 8

Males/ females produce all hormones but amounts vary. Prenatal effects on brain. Puberty hormonal burst triggers secondary sexual characteristics.

Testosterone:
- Pre-natal development of male sex organs, linked to aggression.

Oestrogen:
- Female development, menstruation. Theorised to cause PMS and emotionality.

Oxytocin:
- Stimulates lactation, reduces stress hormone cortisol, facilitates bonding (love hormone).

Question 9

Give one positive evaluation of the role of chromosome and hormones.

Answer 9

Evidence for testosterone:
Wang et al.
- 227 hypogonadal men (men with low testosterone) testosterone therapy. Exerted powerful effect on male sexual behaviour.
=> Counterpoint:
O’Connor et al.
- Extra testosterone had no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour in normal adult males.

Question 10

Give two negative evaluations of the role of chromosome and hormones.

Answer 10

1. Social factors ignored:
   Hofstede et al.
   - Gender roles more about social factors than biological. Different cultures value different traits. Individualist value masculine though is perhaps due to gender bias.
2. Reductionist:
   - Biological explanation ignores schema and childhood conflict. Gender development is complex and perhaps not purely biological.

Question 11

Outline Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 11

Anatomical male - additional X chromosome (XXY), 1 in 600 males affected, many un-aware.

Physical characteristics:
- Less body hair, some breast growth, small genitals, clumsiness, rounded body.

Psychological characteristics:
- Poor language, passive, shy, easily stressed, poor problem-solving.

Question 12

Outline Turner’s syndrome

Answer 12

Anatomical female, absence of one X chromosome (XO), 1 in 5000 affected.

Physical characteristics:
- Infertility, shield chest, low-set ears, webbed neck, narrow hips.

Psychological characteristics:
- Good language, poor visual memory, poor maths, socially immature.

Question 13

Give two positive evaluations of atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 13

1. Contribution to nature-nurture debate:
   - Behavioural differences may indicate biological basis for gender (abnormal chromosome structures directly affected behaviour).
   => Counterpoint:
   - Differences may be due to social influences e.g Turner’s individuals look immature so treated that way.
2. Real-world application:
   Herlihy et al.
   - Early diagnoses means more able to manage condition. Study of 87 Klinefelter’s individuals, those identified when young benefitted in terms of managing health.

Question 14

Give one negative evaluation of atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 14

Sampling issue:
Boada et al.
- Only those with most sever symptoms included in Klinefelter database, gives distorted profile. Prospective studies show fewer cognitive and psychological problems.

Question 15

Outline Kohlberg’s theory as a cognitive explanation of gender development.

Answer 15

Cognitive developmental approach. Thinking (cognitive) about gender changes over time (developmental).

Gender development parallels intellectual development with three stages:
- Gender identity
- Gender stability
- Gender constancy

After constancy, children seek out gender appropriate role model and imitate behaviours. Develop stereotypical behaviours.

Question 16

Outline Kohlberg’s three stages of cognitive gender development.

Answer 16

Stage 1: Gender identity (2 yrs)
- Can label boy or girl.

Stage 2: Gender stability (4 yrs)
- Know gender does not changer, but can’t apply knowledge to others e.g confused seeing men with long hair.

Stage 3: Gender constancy (6 yrs)
- Know gender stays same across time and situations.

Question 17

Give two positive evaluations of Kohlberg’s theory as a cognitive explanation of gender development.

Answer 17

1. Research support:
   Damon
   - Asked children if George should be allowed to play with dolls. 4 year olds said yes, 6 year olds said no. Supports gender constancy.

=> Counterpoint:
Bussey and Bandura
- Children as young as 4 felt good when playing with stereotypical gender appropriate toys, bad doing opposite. Children absorb gender appropriate behaviour at gender identity stage?

2. Research support:
   Slaby and Frey
   -Children shown split-screen images of males and females performing the same tasks.
   - Younger children spent equal time watching both sexes. Children in constancy stage spent longer looking at the same-sex model.

Question 18

Give two negative evaluations of Kohlberg’s theory as a cognitive explanation of gender development.

Answer 18

1. Methodological problem:
   Bem
   - Children 3-5 yrs (Gender Stability stage) show confusion because society marks gender with clothing.
   - Show constancy if first see picture of child with no clothes, then “gender-inappropriate” clothing doesn’t fool them.
2. Different degrees of constancy:
   Martin et al.
   - First degree before 6, seeking gender information. Second degree develops later which heightens responses to gender norms.

Question 19

Outline gender schema theory as a cognitive explanation of gender development.

Answer 19

Martin and Halverson

GST suggests understanding of gender changes with age.

Gender schema:
- Mental construction contains and organises our knowledge of gender. First develops after gender identity (2-3 yrs).

Search for gender information is placed earlier in GST than in Kohlberg’s theory.

Gender stereotypes develop as gender appropriate schema expands. These stereotypes govern behaviour.

Ingroup (own gender) information is remembered better than outgroup info. Ingroup identity bolsters child’s confidence. By 8 schema for both is developed.

Question 20

Give two positive evaluations of gender schema theory as a cognitive explanation of gender development.

Answer 20

1. Research support:
   Martin and Halverson
   - Children under 6 had worse recall for “gender-inappropriate” pictures and remembered with wrong gender. Supports GST early schema.
2. Cultural differences:
   Cherry
   - Gender schema explains cultural differences in gender schema and acquisition of non-standard gender stereotypes. Most theories can’t do this.

Question 21

Give one negative evaluation of gender schema theory as a cognitive explanation of gender development.

Answer 21

Gender identity may develop earlier:
Zosuls et al.
- Analysed twice weekly reports of 82 mothers on child’s language from 8-21 months. Videos also taken. Children could label themselves as boy or girl at 19 months.
=> Counterpoint:
- Martin and Halverson state the ages are averages rather than absolutes. The sequence is what’s important.

Question 22

Outline the psychodynamic as an explanation of gender development.

Answer 22

Five stages, phallic stage is key for development. Pre-phallic, no concept of gender identity.

Oedipus complex: Boys
- Feelings for mother, jealous of father, castration anxiety.

Electra complex: Girls
- Also called penis envy, in coopetition with mother, mother blamed for no penis.

Resolution through identification with same-sex parent. Identification leads to internalisation of parents attitudes etc.

Little Hans case study, fear of castration displaced onto fear of horses.

Question 23

Give one positive evaluation of the psychodynamic as an explanation of gender development.

Answer 23

Some support of the Oedipus complex:
Rekers and Morey
- 49 boys, 75% of “gender disturbed” did not have a biological/ substitute father. Father is key for development.
=> Counterpoint:
Bos and Sandfort
- 63 children with lesbian parents compared with 68 from “traditional” families. No difference in gender identity.

Question 24

Give two negative evaluations of the psychodynamic as an explanation of gender development.

Answer 24

1. Female development:
   Horney
   - Freud’s theory is reflected Victorian patriarchal views. Male’s womb envy could be stronger than women’s penis envy.
2. Pseudoscientific:
   - Methods are poor, case studies are heavily flawed. Lack of rigour and concepts are untestable. Cannot be falsified so not scientific (Popper).

Question 25

Outline social learning theory as an explanation of gender development.

Answer 25

Gender is learned by observation and reinforcement in social context. Parents, peers, teachers etc.

Direct reinforcement:
- Gender appropriate behaviour reinforced in boys and girls.

Vicarious reinforcement and punishment:
- Increases or decreases imitation of gender behaviour.

Children identify with role models. Gender behaviour is modelled by someone (e.g mother cooks) and then imitated (also called modelling) e.g child copies mother.

Mediational processes:
- Attention, retention, motivation, motor reproduction.

Question 26

Give two positive evaluations of social learning theory as an explanation of gender development.

Answer 26

1. Research support for differential reinforcement:
   Smith and Lloyd
   - Observed adults with 4-6 month old babies dressed as boys or girls irrespective of actual sex. “Boys” encouraged to be adventurous, “Girls” praised for being pretty.
   => Counterpoint:
   - Differential reinforcement may not always be case. Adults may just reinforce innate differences in boys and girls.
2. Cultural changes:
   - Androgyny more common now in many societies, can be explained by less punishment of new forms of gender behaviour and more reinforcement.

Question 27

Give two negative evaluations of social learning theory as an explanation of gender development.

Answer 27

1. Does not explain development process:
   - Development process is not reflected in SLT. Implication that modelling occurs the same at any age, illogical.

2.Does not consider biological influence:
Reimer
- It’s impossible to fully ignore biological influences or for nurture to fully override them.

Question 28

Outline the influence of culture on gender roles.

Answer 28

Nature: If gender behaviour is consistent across cultures.

Nurture: If gender behaviour is culturally specific.

Mead’s nurture research in Samoa:
- Arapesh were gentle, Mundugumor were aggressive/ hostile, Tchambuli women dominant and men were considered ornamental.

Buss’s nature research worldwide:
- 37 countries across all continents. Women sought wealthy men. Men sought youth and physical attractiveness.

Question 29

Outline the influence of media on gender roles.

Answer 29

Children likely to imitate same-sex role models who are preforming “gender appropriate” behaviour.

Media creates rigid gender stereotypes:
Bussey and Bandura
- Men shown as independent. Women seen as dependent.
Furnham and Farragher
- Men shown as autonomous in professional roles. Women shown occupying domestic setting in familial roles.

Self-efficacy:
Seeing other people perform “gender appropriate” behaviours increases a child’s belief that they can perform those behaviours.
- Mitra et al. Indian girls seeing women work outside of domestic sphere.

Question 30

Give one positive and one negative evaluation of the influence of culture on gender roles.

Answer 30

1. Research support:
   Hofstede
   - Women’s role has changed in industrialised societies, but not so much in traditional societies.
2. Mead’s research is criticised:
   Freeman
   - Studied Samoan people post Mead, concluded she had been misled by participants. Also, preconceptions going in influenced her reading of events (observer bias and ethnocentrism). Results may not be objective.

Question 31

Give one negative and one positive evaluation of the influence on media on gender roles.

Answer 31

1. Theoretical basis:
   Bond and Drogos
   - Individuals time spent in “media world” affects real world view, cultivation theory. Positive correlation between time spent watching Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes to sex. Media cultivates perception of reality which affects gender (sexual) behaviour.
2. Not passive recipients:
   Durkin
   - Even very young children are not passive recipients. Unless the media re-affirms the family norms regarding gender roles, representations on media are likely ignored. Media is secondary influence.

Question 32

What is gender dysphoria in relation to atypical gender development.

Answer 32

When sex and gender do not correlate for an individual.

DSM-5 excludes atypical gender conditions with biological basis.

Question 33

Outline the biological explanation of atypical gender development.

Answer 33

Brain sex theory. Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) involved in emotional responses and male sexual behaviour in rats.

BST larger in males, but female size (smaller) in male-to-female transgender individuals. People with GD have BST size of opposite sex.

Genetic factors:
Coolidge et al.
- 157 twin pairs (MZ and DZ) 62% accounted for by genetic basis.
Heylens et al.
- 39% of MZ sample concordant for GD, none in DZ sample.

Question 34

Outline the social explanation of atypical gender development.

Answer 34

Social constructionism:
- Gender identity “invented” by societies, not biological. GD is not pathological but due to social factors.

McClintock
- Males born with female genitals in New Guinea. At puberty, genitals changed and they were accepted as females-then-males. After contact with the West, seen as abnormal.

Psychoanalytic theory:
Ovesey and Person
- GD in biological males caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is formed. Fantasize about symbiotic fusion with mother to relieve anxiety. Boy “becomes” mother and adopts female gender identity.

Question 35

Give one positive and three negative evaluation of the biological explanation of atypical gender development.

Answer 35

1. Other brain differences:
   Rametti et al.
   - Analysed brains of individuals before hormone treatment. Amount of white matter inn childhood in GD individuals corresponded to sex they identified as.
2. Contradictory evidence:
   Hulshoff Pol et al.
   - Scanned transgender individuals during hormone treatment, size of BST changed significantly. Kruijver et al’s research was done after individuals had received hormone therapy. BST no the cause of GD.
3. Biological only is too simplistic
4. Twin study issues:
   - Difficult to determine whether it is effect of nature or nurture.

Question 36

Give one positive and one negative evaluation of the social explanation of atypical gender development.

Answer 36

1. Social constructionism:
   - Some cultures traditionally recognise more than one gender e.g “Fa’afafine” of Samoa. Other cultures now accepting non-binary more. Gender identity best seen as social construction.
2. Issues with psychoanalytic theory:
   - Does not explain GD in biological females. Plus psychoanalytic theory contains concepts that are difficult to test etc.