Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

What is Wundt’s contribution to psychology?

Answer 1

1879 Established the first psychology lab in Leipzig Germany.

Introspection:
- First systematic experiment to study the mind.

Controlled/ standardised procedures:
- Same instructions given to all plus the same stimulus (metronome ticking).

Structuralism:
- Introspection aimed at structuring the mind (conscious thought) into thoughts, images and sensations.

Question 2

Give 1 strength and weakness of Wundt’s work.

Answer 2

1) Some methods are scientific:
- Controlled lab environment
- Standardised meant replicability.

2) Some methods are unscientific:
- Self-report dependent on honesty as data recorded is subjective.
- Can’t establish general laws that can be applied to everyone.

Question 3

In what order of approaches did Psychology as a science emerge?

Answer 3

1900s Behaviourist
- Watson rejected introspection.

1930s Behaviourist
- Skinner brought rigour and language of natural science into psychology.

1950s Cognitive
- Studies mental processes scientifically e.g computer analogies.

1980s Biological approach
- Uses controlled measures such a fMRIs. Links established between genetics and behaviour.

Question 4

What are the three assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 4

1) The approach is only concerned with studying observable behaviour that can be measured.

2) Use of control lab studies were essential to remove bias and maintain objectivity.

3) Animals can be used to do research on as the processes that govern learning are the same in all species including humans.

Question 5

Explain Classical conditioning and the study that supports it.

Answer 5

Learning via association.
Pavlov’s dog

1) Before conditioning:
UCS = Food
UCR = Salivation
NS = Bell

2) During conditioning:
UCS and NS were paired.

3) After conditioning:
CS = Bell
lead to
CR = Salivation

Question 6

Explain Operant conditioning and the research that supports it.

Answer 6

Learning via reinforcement or punishment.
Skinner’s box

• Animal such as a rat was in a box with a lever.
• When pressed the lever could either provide the animal with food or prevent an electric shock.

Behaviour learned by three consequences:

1) Positive reinforcement:
- Repeating behaviour to get a positive outcome.

2) Negative reinforcement:
- Repeating behaviour to avoid a negative outcome.

3) Punishment:
- Unpleasant consequence to not repeat behaviour.

Question 7

Give 2 evaluative strengths of the behavioural approach

Answer 7

1) Well controlled research:
- Focused on careful measured and observable behaviour in a lab setting.
- Can be replicated, and is objective.
- Demonstrated causal relationships.

2) Laws developed have real-life applications:
- Token economies provide rewards for privileges is operant conditioning.
- Successfully used in prison and psychiatric wards.

Question 8

Give 2 evaluative limitations of the behavioural approach

Answer 8

1) Portrays a mechanistic and environmental deterministic view:
- Animals/humans seen as machine-like responders to the environment with no decision in their own behaviour.
- Ignores cognitive element completely unlike SLT and cognitive approach that have placed emphasis on mental events that occur during learning.

2) Ethical issues:
- Electrocuting helpless animals till death go brrrr.
- Behaviour may have not been ‘normal’ as animals were highly stressed.
- Threatens validity.

Question 9

Describe the social learning theory.

Answer 9

Made the assumption that learning occurs indirectly in a social context through observation and imitation.

Vicarious reinforcement:
- Behaviour of others that is rewarded is more likely to be imitated.

Mediational processes:
- Attention = Behav noticed?
- Retention = Remembered?
- Motor reproduction = Can I?
- Motivation = Want to?

Identification with role model is important as people (especially children) are more likely to mimic someone they consider to be an example.

Question 10

Describe research done into investigating the SLT.

Answer 10

Bandura’s Bobo Doll

1) Children saw an adult treat bobo doll aggressively or not.
- Those who saw aggressive behaviour replicated it with their own doll.

2) Children saw aggressive adult rewarded, punished or receive no consequence.
- Those who saw the adult rewarded behaved more aggressively.

Conclusions:
- Modelling likely to occur with role-model (adult in this case) and if behaviour is vicariously reinforced.

Question 11

Give 2 strengths of the SLT.

Answer 11

1) Cognitive factors considered:
- Behaviourists don’t offer a sufficient explanation of human learning as they omit cognitive factors.
- SLT recognises the mediational processes involved.
=> Counterpoint
- Underestimates biological factors. Modern research points to mirror neurons which allow us to empathise and imitate.

2) Real-world application:
- Social learning principles can account for cultural differences in behaviour such as gender role learning via modelling.

Question 12

Give one negative evaluation for the SLT.

Answer 12

Evidence from lab studies:
- Developed in lab settings which are unnatural to human environment.
- May have figured out the purpose of the doll is to hit it? So may have thought they were behaving as expected?
- Low ecological validity.

Question 13

Outline the cognitive approach to psychology.

Answer 13

The scientific study of mental processes.

However, since mental processes are “private” cognitive psychologist study them indirectly using inference/ assumptions about what’s mentally going on based upon demonstrated behaviour.

Used models to explain mental processes.

1) Theoretical models:
- Memory represented as having input, storage and retrieval stages. MSM

2) Computer models:
- Programmes on computers that imitate human thinking. AI

Question 14

Explain the concept of Schema

Answer 14

1) Schemas are packages of info developed through experience.

2) Acts as a ‘mental framework’ for interpretation of incoming information.

3) Babies are born with simple motor schema such as sucking and grasping.

4) Schemas become more detailed and sophisticated with age.

Question 15

Describe the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 15

• Study of influence of brain structures on mental processes.
• Brain scanning technology has enabled us to describe a neurological basis for mental processing identifying episodic and semantic memories are in opposite sides of prefrontal cortex of the brain.
• Also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders, such as parahippocampal gyrus in OCD.

Question 16

Give two positive evaluations for the Cognitive approach.

Answer 16

1) Scientific and objective:
- Always employed controlled and rigorous methods of study in order to infer cognitive processes at work.
- Enabled biology and cognitive psychology to merge into one discipline which is credible and has a scientific basis.
=> Research often use artificial stimuli and inference leads it to sometimes being slightly too abstract and theoretical.

2) Real-world application:
- Applicable in the worlds of AI, treatment of depression and improving eyewitness testimony.

Question 17

Give one negative evaluation of the cognitive approach.

Answer 17

Machine reductionism:
- The computer model is a great over-simplification. Emotion and motivation are not considered.

Question 18

Outline the psychodynamic approach.

Answer 18

Unconscious mind has important influence on behaviour.
- Conscious
- Preconscious
- Unconscious

Tripartite structure of personality with dynamic interaction between the three parts.
1) Ego (Mediator)
2) Id (Instinct drive)
3) Superego (Morality compass/ guilt tripper)

There are five psychosexual stages which determine personality. Unresolved conflict at these stages results to a fixation/ behaviour carried into adult life.

The Ego uses defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety and mediate between the other two.

Question 19

What are the 5 psychosexual stages?

Answer 19

1) Oral 0-1
2) Anal 1-3
3) Phallic 3-6
4) Latency (Earlier conflicts are repressed)
5) Genital (Puberty)

Question 20

Describe the oedipus complex

Answer 20

• Phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother, murderous for their father.
• Later repress these feelings and identify with their father, taking on gender role and moral values.
• Girls of same age experience penis envy.

Question 21

What are the three ways the ego reduces stress and mediates between the other two parts?

Answer 21

1) Repression
2) Denial
3) Displacement

Question 22

Give 2 strengths of the psychodynamic approach.

Answer 22

1) Explanatory power:
- Although controversial and bizarre, influence on Western contemporary thought.
- Used to explain a wide range of behaviours (mental disorders) and drew attention to influence of childhood on adult personality.
- Overall beneficial?

2) Introduction of psychotherapy
- First attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically.
- The forerunner of modern-day “talking therapies”.
=> Counterpoint
- Successful for clients with minor neuroses, can be harmful for clients with more serious mental disorders.

Question 23

Give 2 limitations of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 23

1) It relies on case studies:
- Small number of case studies such as Little Hans and the Rat Man.
- Can’t make universal claims from a single case study.
- Although observations were detailed, interpretations are subjective.

2) Lots of untestable concepts
Popper:
- PA does not meet scientific criteria of falsification.
- Oedipus/electra complex are unconscious are impossible to test = pseudoscientific theory.

3) Gender bias and outdated:
- Alpha bias favouring males.
- Childs identification with same sex parent is weaker with girls, leads to weaker super-ego and thus moral development.
- A theory based on a heteronormative raising style is utterly outdated.

Question 24

Outline the humanistic approach.

Answer 24

The concept of free will is central.
- We are affected externally but are ultimately self-determining.

Maslow:
- Hierarchy of needs has self-actualisation (innate wanting to achieve full potential) at the top.
- Focus on the self = I/me/what I am/ what I can do.

Rogers:
- Growth requires congruence and that is the aim of Rogerian therapy.
- Parents who impose conditions of worth may prevent personal growth (lack of unconditional positive regard)

Question 25

Describe Rogerian therapy.

Answer 25

Client-centred therapy/ counselling.

Client should have these things from a therapist:
1) Genuineness
2) Empathy
3) Unconditional positive regard

Aim is to increase feelings of self-worth by reducing incongruence between ideal and perceived self.

Question 26

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Answer 26

1) Self-actualisation
2) Self-esteem
3) Love and belongingness
4) Safety and security
5) Physiological needs

Question 27

Give three positive evaluations of Humanistic psychology.

Answer 27

1) A positive approach:
- People can be in control of their lives and having the freedom to change.
- Unlike Freud who saw us as slaves existing between unhappiness and despair.

2) Real-world application:
- Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques and the process of modern therapy sessions.

3) Anti-reductionist:
- Advocates holism, we must see the client as a whole person (past, present and future etc.).
- May have more validity as it considers whole human behaviour in a real-world context.

Question 28

Give two negative evaluations for the Humanistic approach.

Answer 28

1) Short on empirical evidence:
- Has few concepts that can be reduced to single variables and accurately measured.

2) Cultural bias:
- Self-actualisation is a very individualist culture ideal, collectivist cultures focus on developing the group as a whole rather than a collection of individuals.
- Tricky to universalise.

Question 29

What are each of the approaches views on development?

Answer 29

1) BEHAVIOURAL - Learning is continuous.

2) SLT - Learning is continuous.

3) COGNITIVE - Developing schema as child gets older.

4) BIOLOGICAL - genetically determined maturation.

5) PSYCHODYNAMIC - Concepts and processes to age-related stages.

6) HUMANISM - Development of self is ongoing.

Question 30

Where does each approach stand regarding the nature vs nurture debate.

Answer 30

1) Behavioural - NURTURE Babies born as blank slates, learn through association and reinforcement.

2) SL - NURTURE Same as behaviourism.

3) Cognitive - BOTH Info-processing abilities are innate, but are refined by experience.

4) Biological - NATURE Behaviour stems from genetic blueprint inherited from parents.

5) Psychodynamic - BOTH behaviour driven by biological drives/instincts, but also see child’s relationships with its parents as crucial.

6) Humanism - NURTURE Parents, friends and society have a critical impact on person’s self-concept.

Question 31

How are each of the approaches (not) reductionist?

Answer 31

1) Behavioural - Reduces learning into stimulus-response units for ease of testing in lab setting.

2) SL - Recognises how cognitive factors interact with external environment.

3) Cognitive - Machine reductionism.

4) Biological - Reduces and explains human behaviour to genes or neurons.

5) Psychodynamic - Reduces behaviour to the influence of biology/instincts.

6) Humanistic - Completely holistic.

Question 32

Explain the different types of determinism (if necessary) for each of the approaches?

Answer 32

1) Behavioural - Environmental determinism.

2) SL - Influenced by environment with some control = reciprocal determinism.

3) Cognitive - Soft determinism = we can choose our own behaviour.

4) Biological - Genetic determinism.

5) Psychodynamic - Psychic determinism.

6) Humanism - Self-determining.

Question 33

How would each of the approaches explain and treat abnormal/atypical behaviour?

Answer 33

1) Behavioural - Maladaptive/faulty learning, therapies take a symptom-based approach to unlearning of behaviour.

2) SL - Principles such as modelling used to explain the development of aggressive behaviour.

3) Cognitive - CBT or REBT.

4) Biological - Drug therapy.

5) Psychodynamic - Use psychoanalysis.

6) Humanistic - Humanistic therapy/counselling.

Question 34

Outline the biological approach.

Answer 34

Everything psychological is first biological.
- The mind and brain are one and the same.

Neurochemical basis for behaviour:
- An imbalance of neurotransmitters may be the cause of some mental disorders.

Genetic basis for behaviour:
- Psychological characteristics (such as IQ) are inherited. Twin studies are used to calculate concordance rates.

Genotype and Phenotype:
- Genotype is actual genetic make-up
- Phenotype is the way genes are expressed (physical and behavioural) and can be affected by nature (phenylketonuria is a genetic disorder due to restricted diet).

Theory of evolution is used to explain behaviour.
- Genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed on.

Question 35

Give two positive evaluations of the biological approach.

Answer 35

1) Real-world application:
- Understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain has lead to effective drug therapies.
=> Counterpoint
Cirpriani et al.
- Antidepressants don’t work for everyone when conducting analysis of 21 different drugs.

2) Uses scientific methods:
- Biological study can use techniques and processes that only produce objective and reliable data (such as fMRI) which increases the internal validity of studies.

Question 36

Give two negative evaluations of the biological approach.

Answer 36

1) Deterministic:
- Biological approach tends to see human behaviour entirely governed by genetic make-up over which we have no control, with little environmental effect on development. However twin studies demonstrate effect of environment, biological approach may be too narrow-minded.

2) Twin-studies:
- It’s difficult to tell if it is the environment or genetic make-up that influences their development.