Gender Ao1 Only Flashcards
Outline sex and gender
Nature:
Sex is biological and innate, chromosomes.
- e.g XX (female) or XY (male).
Nurture:
Gender is a psychological status.
- The attitudes, behaviours and roles associated with different genders.
Gender dysphoria:
Sex and gender don’t correlate.
Outline Sex-role stereotypes
Expectations shared by culture or group about how women or men should behave.
Sex-role stereotypes may or may not represent something real, but there is no biological basis for these and they result in sexism.
Research confirms sex-role stereotypes in the media:
Furnham and Farragher
- Men seen as autonomous and professional, women seen as domestic familial roles.
Define androgyny in psychology
Balance on M and F traits, behaviours and attitudes.
Androgyny is a positive attribute:
Bem
- high androgyny associated with psychological well-being, not a mixture of different proportions. A balance.
Outline measuring androgyny
Bem Sex Role Inventory (BMI)
Items are masculine, feminine or neutral.
60 trait questions (equal balance of M,F and N) measured on 7 point scale.
Four categorisations:
- Masculine (High M Low F)
- Feminine (Low M High F)
- Androgynous (High M and F)
- Undifferentiated (Low M and F)
Outline the role of chromosomes in gender development
23 pairs, 23rd pair determines biological sex.
- Babies sex determined by whether sperm cell is carrying X or Y.
XX = Female
XY = Male
Y chromosome has SRY gene, causes androgens to be produced in male embryo.
Outline the role of hormones in gender development
Males/ females produce all hormones but amounts vary. Prenatal effects on brain. Puberty hormonal burst triggers secondary sexual characteristics.
Testosterone:
- Pre-natal development of male sex organs, linked to aggression.
Oestrogen:
- Female development, menstruation. Theorised to cause PMS and emotionality.
Oxytocin:
- Stimulates lactation, reduces stress hormone cortisol, facilitates bonding (love hormone).
Outline Klinefelter’s syndrome
Anatomical male - additional X chromosome (XXY), 1 in 600 males affected, many un-aware.
Physical characteristics:
- Less body hair, some breast growth, small genitals, clumsiness, rounded body.
Psychological characteristics:
- Poor language, passive, shy, easily stressed, poor problem-solving.
Outline Turner’s syndrome
Anatomical female, absence of one X chromosome (XO), 1 in 5000 affected.
Physical characteristics:
- Infertility, shield chest, low-set ears, webbed neck, narrow hips.
Psychological characteristics:
- Good language, poor visual memory, poor maths, socially immature.
Outline Kohlberg’s theory as a cognitive explanation of gender development.
Cognitive developmental approach. Thinking (cognitive) about gender changes over time (developmental).
Gender development parallels intellectual development with three stages:
- Gender identity
- Gender stability
- Gender constancy
After constancy, children seek out gender appropriate role model and imitate behaviours. Develop stereotypical behaviours.
Outline Kohlberg’s three stages of cognitive gender development.
Stage 1: Gender identity (2 yrs)
- Can label boy or girl.
Stage 2: Gender stability (4 yrs)
- Know gender does not change, but can’t apply knowledge to others e.g confused seeing men with long hair.
Stage 3: Gender constancy (6 yrs)
- Know gender stays same across time and situations.
Outline gender schema theory as a cognitive explanation of gender development.
Martin and Halverson
GST suggests understanding of gender changes with age.
Gender schema:
- Mental construction contains and organises our knowledge of gender. First develops after gender identity (2-3 yrs).
Search for gender information is placed earlier in GST than in Kohlberg’s theory.
Gender stereotypes develop as gender appropriate schema expands. These stereotypes govern behaviour.
Ingroup (own gender) information is remembered better than outgroup info. Ingroup identity bolsters child’s confidence. By 8 schema for both is developed.
Outline the psychodynamic as an explanation of gender development.
Five stages, phallic stage is key for development. Pre-phallic, no concept of gender identity.
Oedipus complex: Boys
- Feelings for mother, jealous of father, castration anxiety.
Electra complex: Girls
- Also called penis envy, in coopetition with mother, mother blamed for no penis.
Resolution through identification with same-sex parent. Identification leads to internalisation of parents attitudes etc.
Little Hans case study, fear of castration displaced onto fear of horses.
Outline social learning theory as an explanation of gender development.
Gender is learned by observation and reinforcement in social context. Parents, peers, teachers etc.
Direct reinforcement:
- Gender appropriate behaviour reinforced in boys and girls.
Vicarious reinforcement and punishment:
- Increases or decreases imitation of gender behaviour.
Children identify with role models. Gender behaviour is modelled by someone (e.g mother cooks) and then imitated (also called modelling) e.g child copies mother.
Mediational processes:
- Attention, retention, motivation, motor reproduction.
Outline the influence of culture on gender roles.
Nature: If gender behaviour is consistent across cultures.
Nurture: If gender behaviour is culturally specific.
Mead’s nurture research in Samoa:
- Arapesh were gentle, Mundugumor were aggressive/ hostile, Tchambuli women dominant and men were considered ornamental.
Buss’s nature research worldwide:
- 37 countries across all continents. Women sought wealthy men. Men sought youth and physical attractiveness.
Outline the influence of media on gender roles.
Children likely to imitate same-sex role models who are preforming “gender appropriate” behaviour.
Media creates rigid gender stereotypes:
Bussey and Bandura
- Men shown as independent. Women seen as dependent. Furnham and Farragher back this up.
Self-efficacy:
Seeing other people perform “gender appropriate” behaviours increases a child’s belief that they can perform those behaviours.
- Mitra et al. Indian girls seeing women work outside of domestic sphere.
