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psychology > memory > Flashcards

memory Flashcards

1
Q

research on coding

A

word recall of similar/dissimilar words

Baddeley
acoustic in STM
semantic in LTM

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2
Q

coding - evaluation - separate stores

A

identified STM and LTM, supporting MSM

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3
Q

coding - eval - artificial stimuli

A

word lists had no personal meaning

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4
Q

research on capacity - digit span

A

Jacobs - 9.3 digits 7.3 letters

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5
Q

research on capacity - span of memory

A

Miller 7 +- 2 - putting items together extends STM capacity

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6
Q

capacity - eval - a valid study

A

later studies replicated findings eg Bopp and Verhaeghen so valid test of digit span

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7
Q

Capacity - eval - chunks

A

Miller overestimated STM, only four chunks - Cowan

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8
Q

research on duration - STM

A

Peterson and Peterson - about 18 seconds without rehearsal

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9
Q

research on duration - LTM

A

Bahrick et al

Yearbooks

face recognition 90%, free recall 60% (15 years)

face recognition 70%, free recall 30% (48 years)

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10
Q

duration - eval - meaningless stimuli in STM

A

petersons used consonant syllables - lacks external validity

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11
Q

duration - eval - high external

A

Bahrick et al used meaningful materials, better recall than studies with meaningless stimuli

Shepard

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12
Q

Sensory register

A

modality-specific coding

very brief duration

Sperling’s study, less than 50ms

high capacity

transfer to STM by attention

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13
Q

short-term memory

A

mainly acoustic coding - limited duration and capacity

transfer to LTM by rehearsal

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14
Q

long-term memory

A

mainly semantic coding

unlimited duration and capacity

created through maintenance rehearsal

retrieval from LTM via STM

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15
Q

msm - eval - research support

A

research shows STM and LTm use different coding and have different capacity

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16
Q

msm - eval - research support counterpoint

A

studies do not use everyday materials

eg consonant syllables

low validity

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17
Q

msm - more than one STM store

A

studies of amnesia eg KF show different STMs for visual and audacity material

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18
Q

msm - elaborative rehearsal

A

transfer to LTM more about elaboration (meaningful processing) than maintenance rehearsal (Craik and Watkins)

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19
Q

msm - bygone model

A

supporting evidence but also eg evidence of more than one type of STM and LTM

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20
Q

episodic memory

A

memory for events in our lives

time-stamped

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21
Q

semantic memory

A

memory for knowledge of the world, like an encyclopaedia and dictionary

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22
Q

procedural memory

A

memory for automatic and often skilled behaviours

unconscious recall

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23
Q

LTM - clinical evidence

A

Clive Wearing and HM had damaged episodic memories but semantic and procedural memories were relatively fine

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24
Q

LTM - clinical evidence - counterpoint

A

clinical studies lack control of variables

memory before injury

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25
LTM - conflicting neuroimaging evidence
research links semantic to left prefrontal cortex and episodic to right (Buckner and Peterson) others reverse this (Tulving et al)
26
LTM - Real-world application
old-age memory loss improved by intervention to target episodic memory (Belleville et al)
27
LTM - same or different
Tulving now suggests episodic may be specialised subcategory of semantic but Alzheimer’s patients could form episodic not semantic memories (Hodges and Patterson)
28
Central executive
supervisory, allocates slave subsystems to tasks, very limited capacity
29
Phonological loop
Auditory information - phonological store and articulatory process - maintenance rehearsal coding - acoustic capacity - 2 seconds of speech
30
visuo-spatial sketchpad
visual information - visual cache and inner scribe coding - visual capacity - 3 or 4 objects
31
episodic buffer
integrates data from slave systems and records the order of events linked to LTM coding - flexible capacity - 4 chunks
32
WMM - clinical evidence
KF had poor auditory memory but good visual memory Damaged PL but VSS fine
33
WMM - clinical evidence - counterpoint
KF may have had other impairments that affected his WM
34
WMM - Dual-task performance
difficult to do two visual tasks (or two verbal) at same time, but one visual and one verbal is OK Baddeley et al
35
WMM - nature of the central executive
not well specified, needs to be more than ‘attention’
36
WMM - validity of the model
dual-tasks studies support WMM but are highly controlled, using artificial tasks eg letter sequences
37
types of interference
proactive - old memories disrupt new ones retroactive - new memories disrupt old ones
38
effects of similarity
McGeoch and McDonald - six groups learned list, similar words (synonyms) created more interference
39
explanation of the effects of similarity
proactive - makes new information difficult to store retroactive - old information overwritten
40
interference - evaluation - real-world interference
rugby players remembered less if played more games over a season Baddeley and Hitch
41
interference - evaluation - real-world interference counterpoint
interference unusual in everyday situations eg similarity unusual
42
interference and cues
interference effects are overcome using cues (Tulving and Psotka)
43
interference - support from drug studies
taking diazepam after learning reduce interference and forgetting - retrograde facilitation (Coenan and van Luijtelaar)
44
interference - validity issues
lab studies have high control but use artificial materials and unrealistic procedures
45
encoding specificity principle
Tulving - cues most effective if present at coding and at retrieval link between cues and material may be meaningful or meaningless
46
context-dependent forgetting
Godden and Baddeley - recall better when external context matched
47
state-dependent forgetting
carter and cassaday | antihistamine - recall better when internal state matched
48
retrieval failure - real-world application
cues are weak but worth paying attention to as strategy for improving recall
49
retrieval failure - research support
wide range of support suggests this is main reason for forgetting Eysenck and Keane
50
retrieval failure - research support - counterpoint
no forgetting unless contexts are very different, eg on land versus underwater Baddeley
51
retrieval failure - recall versus recognition
no context effects when memory assessed using recognition test Godden and Baddeley
52
retrieval failure - problems with ESP
research support for the principle but no independent measure of cue encoding
53
leading questions research support
speed estimates affected by leading question eg smashed, contacted Loftus and Palmer
54
why do leading questions affect EWT
response bias - no change to memory substitution explanation - supported by report of seeing broken glass
55
post-event discussion
co-witness discussion affect memories of event
56
why does PED affect EWT
memory contamination - mix misinformation fro others memory conformity - responses given for social approval
57
misleading - real-world application
insights applied to police interviewing and expert witnesses
58
misleading - real-world counterpoint
film clips in lab are less stressful than everyday life, no consequences EWT are reliable
59
misleading - evidence against substitution
central details not much affected by misleading information (Sutherland and Hayne)
60
misleading - evidence challenging memory conformity
post-event information on hair colour blended, supporting contamination Skagerberg and Wright
61
misleading - demand characteristics
lab environment enables control but answers in lab studies influenced by desire to be helpful (demand characteristics)
62
anxiety has a negative effect on recall
Johnson and Scott (weapon focus) - high-anxiety knife condition led to poorer recall tunnel theory of memory
63
anxiety has a positive effect on recall
Yuille and Cutshall shooting in gun shop - high anxiety associated with better recall when witnessing real crime
64
explaining the contradictory findings
deffenbacher reviewed 21 studies, Yerkes-Dodson inverted-U theory suggests both low and high anxiety lead to poor recall
65
anxiety - unusualness not anxiety
poor recall due to unusualness (chicken and handgun), not anxiety (Pickel)
66
anxiety - support for negative effects
London Dungeon - anxiety reduced accurate recall of an individual Valentine and Mesout
67
anxiety - positive effects
the most anxious eyewitness at bank robbery had the most accurate recall
68
anxiety - positive effects counterpoint
interviews were long after event, lacks control of confounding variables
69
anxiety - problems with inverted-U theory
explains contradictory findings but focuses just on physical arousal, ignores cognitive aspects of anxiety
70
cognitive interview
1 - report everything include even unimportant details 2 - reinstate the context picture the scene and recall how you felt avoids context-dependent forgetting 3 - reverse the order recall from the end and work backwards disrupts expectations 4 - change perspective put yourself in the shoes of someone else present disrupt schema 5 - the enhanced cognitive interview adds social dynamics eg establishing eye contact
71
support for the effectiveness of the cognitive interview
cognitive interview 41% more accurate recall than standard interview Kohnken et al
72
support for the effectiveness of the cognitive interview counterpoint
cognitive interview also increases inaccurate information Kohnken et al - even more true for enhanced cognitive interview
73
cognitive interview - some elements may be more useful
report everything and reinstate the context used together produced best recall Milne and Bull
74
cognitive interview - time-consuming
it takes longer and needs special training Kebbell and Wagstaff full cognitive not realistic for police
75
cognitive interview - variations of the cognitive interview
pick and mix approach makes it hard to compare effectiveness but gives more flexibility

psychology (45 decks)

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