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memory Flashcards

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1
Q

research on coding

A

word recall of similar/dissimilar words

Baddeley
acoustic in STM
semantic in LTM

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2
Q

coding - evaluation - separate stores

A

identified STM and LTM, supporting MSM

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3
Q

coding - eval - artificial stimuli

A

word lists had no personal meaning

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4
Q

research on capacity - digit span

A

Jacobs - 9.3 digits 7.3 letters

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5
Q

research on capacity - span of memory

A

Miller 7 +- 2 - putting items together extends STM capacity

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6
Q

capacity - eval - a valid study

A

later studies replicated findings eg Bopp and Verhaeghen so valid test of digit span

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7
Q

Capacity - eval - chunks

A

Miller overestimated STM, only four chunks - Cowan

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8
Q

research on duration - STM

A

Peterson and Peterson - about 18 seconds without rehearsal

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9
Q

research on duration - LTM

A

Bahrick et al

Yearbooks

face recognition 90%, free recall 60% (15 years)

face recognition 70%, free recall 30% (48 years)

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10
Q

duration - eval - meaningless stimuli in STM

A

petersons used consonant syllables - lacks external validity

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11
Q

duration - eval - high external

A

Bahrick et al used meaningful materials, better recall than studies with meaningless stimuli

Shepard

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12
Q

Sensory register

A

modality-specific coding

very brief duration

Sperling’s study, less than 50ms

high capacity

transfer to STM by attention

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13
Q

short-term memory

A

mainly acoustic coding - limited duration and capacity

transfer to LTM by rehearsal

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14
Q

long-term memory

A

mainly semantic coding

unlimited duration and capacity

created through maintenance rehearsal

retrieval from LTM via STM

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15
Q

msm - eval - research support

A

research shows STM and LTm use different coding and have different capacity

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16
Q

msm - eval - research support counterpoint

A

studies do not use everyday materials

eg consonant syllables

low validity

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17
Q

msm - more than one STM store

A

studies of amnesia eg KF show different STMs for visual and audacity material

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18
Q

msm - elaborative rehearsal

A

transfer to LTM more about elaboration (meaningful processing) than maintenance rehearsal (Craik and Watkins)

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19
Q

msm - bygone model

A

supporting evidence but also eg evidence of more than one type of STM and LTM

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20
Q

episodic memory

A

memory for events in our lives

time-stamped

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21
Q

semantic memory

A

memory for knowledge of the world, like an encyclopaedia and dictionary

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22
Q

procedural memory

A

memory for automatic and often skilled behaviours

unconscious recall

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23
Q

LTM - clinical evidence

A

Clive Wearing and HM had damaged episodic memories but semantic and procedural memories were relatively fine

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24
Q

LTM - clinical evidence - counterpoint

A

clinical studies lack control of variables

memory before injury

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25
Q

LTM - conflicting neuroimaging evidence

A

research links semantic to left prefrontal cortex and episodic to right (Buckner and Peterson) others reverse this (Tulving et al)

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26
Q

LTM - Real-world application

A

old-age memory loss improved by intervention to target episodic memory (Belleville et al)

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27
Q

LTM - same or different

A

Tulving now suggests episodic may be specialised subcategory of semantic but Alzheimer’s patients could form episodic not semantic memories (Hodges and Patterson)

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28
Q

Central executive

A

supervisory, allocates slave subsystems to tasks, very limited capacity

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29
Q

Phonological loop

A

Auditory information - phonological store and articulatory process - maintenance rehearsal
coding - acoustic
capacity - 2 seconds of speech

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30
Q

visuo-spatial sketchpad

A

visual information - visual cache and inner scribe
coding - visual
capacity - 3 or 4 objects

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31
Q

episodic buffer

A

integrates data from slave systems and records the order of events
linked to LTM
coding - flexible
capacity - 4 chunks

32
Q

WMM - clinical evidence

A

KF had poor auditory memory but good visual memory

Damaged PL but VSS fine

33
Q

WMM - clinical evidence - counterpoint

A

KF may have had other impairments that affected his WM

34
Q

WMM - Dual-task performance

A

difficult to do two visual tasks (or two verbal) at same time, but one visual and one verbal is OK

Baddeley et al

35
Q

WMM - nature of the central executive

A

not well specified, needs to be more than ‘attention’

36
Q

WMM - validity of the model

A

dual-tasks studies support WMM but are highly controlled, using artificial tasks eg letter sequences

37
Q

types of interference

A

proactive - old memories disrupt new ones

retroactive - new memories disrupt old ones

38
Q

effects of similarity

A

McGeoch and McDonald - six groups learned list, similar words (synonyms) created more interference

39
Q

explanation of the effects of similarity

A

proactive - makes new information difficult to store

retroactive - old information overwritten

40
Q

interference - evaluation - real-world interference

A

rugby players remembered less if played more games over a season

Baddeley and Hitch

41
Q

interference - evaluation - real-world interference counterpoint

A

interference unusual in everyday situations eg similarity unusual

42
Q

interference and cues

A

interference effects are overcome using cues (Tulving and Psotka)

43
Q

interference - support from drug studies

A

taking diazepam after learning reduce interference and forgetting - retrograde facilitation (Coenan and van Luijtelaar)

44
Q

interference - validity issues

A

lab studies have high control but use artificial materials and unrealistic procedures

45
Q

encoding specificity principle

A

Tulving - cues most effective if present at coding and at retrieval

link between cues and material may be meaningful or meaningless

46
Q

context-dependent forgetting

A

Godden and Baddeley - recall better when external context matched

47
Q

state-dependent forgetting

A

carter and cassaday

antihistamine - recall better when internal state matched

48
Q

retrieval failure - real-world application

A

cues are weak but worth paying attention to as strategy for improving recall

49
Q

retrieval failure - research support

A

wide range of support suggests this is main reason for forgetting
Eysenck and Keane

50
Q

retrieval failure - research support - counterpoint

A

no forgetting unless contexts are very different, eg on land versus underwater

Baddeley

51
Q

retrieval failure - recall versus recognition

A

no context effects when memory assessed using recognition test

Godden and Baddeley

52
Q

retrieval failure - problems with ESP

A

research support for the principle but no independent measure of cue encoding

53
Q

leading questions research support

A

speed estimates affected by leading question eg smashed, contacted

Loftus and Palmer

54
Q

why do leading questions affect EWT

A

response bias - no change to memory

substitution explanation - supported by report of seeing broken glass

55
Q

post-event discussion

A

co-witness discussion affect memories of event

56
Q

why does PED affect EWT

A

memory contamination - mix misinformation fro others

memory conformity - responses given for social approval

57
Q

misleading - real-world application

A

insights applied to police interviewing and expert witnesses

58
Q

misleading - real-world counterpoint

A

film clips in lab are less stressful than everyday life, no consequences

EWT are reliable

59
Q

misleading - evidence against substitution

A

central details not much affected by misleading information (Sutherland and Hayne)

60
Q

misleading - evidence challenging memory conformity

A

post-event information on hair colour blended, supporting contamination

Skagerberg and Wright

61
Q

misleading - demand characteristics

A

lab environment enables control but answers in lab studies influenced by desire to be helpful (demand characteristics)

62
Q

anxiety has a negative effect on recall

A

Johnson and Scott (weapon focus) - high-anxiety knife condition led to poorer recall

tunnel theory of memory

63
Q

anxiety has a positive effect on recall

A

Yuille and Cutshall

shooting in gun shop

  • high anxiety associated with better recall when witnessing real crime
64
Q

explaining the contradictory findings

A

deffenbacher reviewed 21 studies, Yerkes-Dodson inverted-U theory suggests both low and high anxiety lead to poor recall

65
Q

anxiety - unusualness not anxiety

A

poor recall due to unusualness (chicken and handgun), not anxiety (Pickel)

66
Q

anxiety - support for negative effects

A

London Dungeon - anxiety reduced accurate recall of an individual

Valentine and Mesout

67
Q

anxiety - positive effects

A

the most anxious eyewitness at bank robbery had the most accurate recall

68
Q

anxiety - positive effects counterpoint

A

interviews were long after event, lacks control of confounding variables

69
Q

anxiety - problems with inverted-U theory

A

explains contradictory findings but focuses just on physical arousal, ignores cognitive aspects of anxiety

70
Q

cognitive interview

A

1 - report everything
include even unimportant details

2 - reinstate the context
picture the scene and recall how you felt
avoids context-dependent forgetting

3 - reverse the order
recall from the end and work backwards
disrupts expectations

4 - change perspective
put yourself in the shoes of someone else present
disrupt schema

5 - the enhanced cognitive interview
adds social dynamics eg establishing eye contact

71
Q

support for the effectiveness of the cognitive interview

A

cognitive interview 41% more accurate recall than standard interview

Kohnken et al

72
Q

support for the effectiveness of the cognitive interview counterpoint

A

cognitive interview also increases inaccurate information Kohnken et al - even more true for enhanced cognitive interview

73
Q

cognitive interview - some elements may be more useful

A

report everything and reinstate the context used together produced best recall

Milne and Bull

74
Q

cognitive interview - time-consuming

A

it takes longer and needs special training

Kebbell and Wagstaff

full cognitive not realistic for police

75
Q

cognitive interview - variations of the cognitive interview

A

pick and mix approach makes it hard to compare effectiveness but gives more flexibility

psychology (45 decks)

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