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Chika- SF2 > Mechanisms of sensory-Allard > Flashcards

Mechanisms of sensory-Allard Flashcards

1
Q

What is sensation?

A

detection of those different energy forms

  • refers to the detection of the elements and energies in our internal and external environment
  • Requires conversion of environmental signals into signals that can be recognized by our CNS.
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2
Q

What is perception?

A
  • deciding what these energy forms mean; integration of all the different types of energy and sensations we gets as well as past experiences with things
  • is the interpretation of the significance, meaning or quality of sensory information.

-Depends on several factors such as learning, memory, context, and physiological state.
Perception can vary widely between individuals.

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3
Q

What is sensory physiology?

A

The study of the mechanisms guiding the transduction of a stimulus into action potentials that travel to the brain resulting in sensation (conscious or unconscious)

unconscious: detecting elevation in blood pressure
in order to reach our conscious level it MUST reach our CORTEX; if it doesn’t reach there it is not conscious

Most sensory signals are processed to reach our conscious awareness (producing a physical sensation), but others are processed completely at the subconscious level.

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4
Q

What are somatosensory systems?

A

things you can detect on skin or surface of body; includes the sensation of tension or muscle strength

Convey impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints

Produce sensations of temperature, touch, pressure, itch, pain, and muscle tension

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5
Q

What are visceral sensory systems?

A

-a special section of somatosensory
-senses coming from our internal bodies
like the ones that DON’t get processed to our conscious level

Convey impulses from visceral organs
Produce sensations of stretch, pressure, pain
Process subconscious detection of osmolarity, pH, O2, CO2

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6
Q

What are Special sensory systems?

A

coming from specials sense organs that are dedicated to special senses of auditory, vision, smell, and taste

convey impulses from special sense organs (ears, eyes, nose, tongue)
Produce sensations of light, sound , taste, smell, head motion and equilibrium/balance

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7
Q

How are General senses AKA somatosensory detected?

A
  • are detected by sensory receptors that are scattered throughout the body
  • detect temp, external temp, touch, pressure, pain, and proprioception
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8
Q

How are special senses detected?

A

are detected by receptors localized to special sensory organs (located in the head)
sight, sound , taste, smell and balance

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9
Q

Describe the Sensory Systems/ Pathways.

A

There is a general path taken from our sensory receptor to a part of the brain that gives us awareness of the sensation.
Interconnected sensory organs and neuronal groups that work together to process information from the body’s internal and external environment.

3 PARTS:
Sensory Receptors
-primary afferent neuron: that relay info to secondary afferent neuron
-secondary afferent neuron: generally synapses in the thalamus; 1/2 of your body is represented in the opposite half of your brain meaning info has to cross at some point; typically this neuron always passes or crosses the midline

Brain: Primary Sensory and Integrating Areas

  • primary sensory cortex that is dedicated to processing of that stimulus
  • all of this information is integrated in the brain

Efferent Pathways to the Effectors

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10
Q

What are sensory Receptors AKA transducers?

A

our sensory receptors
-elements that are able to detect that energy; specialized to detect environmental energy (stimuli)

  • these energy receptors are transducing: will change that form of energy into another form of energy, into AP in order for our brain to recognize it; changes in membrane potentials
  • Convert stimulus energy into electrical energy changes in transmembrane electrical potential of the sensory (afferent) neuron

Trigger action potentials (in the 1° afferent neuron) that are transmitted to 2° and 3° afferent neurons and travel to the brain.

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11
Q

Receptor Classification by Origin of Stimulus:

Exteroceptors
Interoceptors (Visceroceptors)
Proprioceptors

A

Exteroceptors: detects energy outside of our body

  • Respond to stimuli arising from outside the body
  • Receptors located in skin and special sensory organs
  • Produce sensations of light, sound, smell, taste, touch, temperature

Interoceptors (visceroceptors)
detect energy inside our body
-Respond to stimuli arising in internal viscera and blood vessels
-Sensitive to chemicals, pH, tissue stretch, and temperature
-Produce sensations of distension or pain; many do not lead to sensations

Proprioceptors: detects muscle spindles, tension, muscle strength

  • Respond to stimuli arising in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, connective tissues
  • Sensitive to contraction, stretch, movement
  • Produces sensations of body movements and special position
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12
Q 
Receptor Classification by Stimulus Type: 
Mechanoreceptors 
Thermoreceptors
Photoreceptors 
Chemoreceptors 
Nociceptors
A

Mechanoreceptors

  • Respond to mechanical forces
  • Touch, pressure, vibration, stretch, tension

Thermoreceptors

  • Respond to temperature changes
  • Heat, cold

-Photoreceptors
Respond to wavelength of light

Chemoreceptors

  • Respond to chemicals
  • Osmolality, pH, CO2, O2, organic molecules, airborne molecules

Nociceptors (polymodal)
-Respond to potentially damaging stimuli

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13
Q

Nociceptors are polymodal. Explain.

A

they respond to the intensity, when any of these stimuli are high enough intensity to cause damage

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14
Q

Describe Primary Sensory Neurons

A
  • cell body location for somatosensory senses are generally located in the dorsal root ganglion AKA spinal ganglion or cranial nerve ganglia
  • cell body location for special senses are located in the special sensory organs
  • usually pseudounipolar for general senses
  • usually bipolar for special senses
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15
Q

Sensory Receptor Structures: Simple

A
  • Naked nerve endings
  • Encapsulated naked nerve endings
  • sensory receptors is the terminal ending of the primary afferent neuron
  • this ending will have different channels embedded in the membrane that is able to detect changes in membrane and allow for depolarization????

Pacinian corpuscle: touch receptors; can modulate how the sensation of touch affect these NAKED nerve ending that are inside the corpuscles

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16
Q

Stimulus Transduction in Simple Receptors

A
  • stimulus energy
  • channel protein or protein coupled to some secondary messenger system when activated leads to events that lead to depolarization; these protein are usually mechanically gated channels
  • region synonymous with axon hillock called trigger zone: we don’t have a lot of sodium voltage gated channels unlike axon hillock

First the stimulus is detected by receptor which:

  • alter membrane permeability to ions
  • activate second messenger systems which then lead to altered membrane permeability to ions

That causes change in graded potential.

Graded potential triggers action potentials in afferent neurons (For sensation, generator potential must reach threshold at trigger zone)

Action potentials are propagated.

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17
Q

Sensory Receptor Structures that are complex (special)

A
  • special sensory cell organs are different
  • specialized receptors cells which produce neurotransmitters
  • primary afferent neuron is a separate cells from the receptor cell
  • have other types of cells that are closely related with the afferent neurons
  • rod from our visual system; are specialized sensory cells that produce NT; they convert light energy into NT; when the light energy is felt, the amount of NT released is augmented (changed); changes the frequency of firing of AP in the primary afferent neurons because there are receptors on the primary afferent neurons for that specific NT that is released by the rod or the cone which is the sensory receptor
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18
Q

Sensory Transduction in Special Sensory Cells

A

Stimulus Detected by Receptor Cell

Change in Graded potential in receptor cell (receptor potential)

Receptor cell releases neurotransmitter (in proportion to receptor potential); the primary afferent neuron responds to this because it has receptors for the NT

Neurotransmitters generate graded potentials in 1º sensory neuron (generator potential)

Graded potential triggers APs
in 1º afferent neuron

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19
Q

Sensory Receptor Cell Types

A

These communicate with the primary afferent neuron

  • baroreceptor
  • gustatory receptor
  • olfactory receptor
  • mechanoreceptor
  • nociceptor
  • proprioceptor
  • auditory receptor
  • photoreceptor
20
Q

Complex Receptor structures: Sensory Organs

A

Specialized network of cells that release neurotransmitter onto sensory neurons
Special sensory receptors are part of a sensory organ.
Eyes (retina: rods and cones)
Tongue (Taste buds )
Nose (Olfactory cells)
Otolith organs (hair cells)
Organ of corti (hair cells)

21
Q

Accessory organs

A
  • do not change the form of energy but direct it or modify the intensity of it
  • more complex with special senses
  • Accessory Organs Direct and Transfer Input Energy
  • they are not the sensory receptors as they do not change the energy form; they just give it direction

EXAMPLES:

Pinna (outer ear)
amplify and direct sound waves into the auditory canal

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Amplify sound  waves

Cornea and Lens of Eye
Focus entry of light onto the retina of eye

Hair cells on body
transmits light touch and movement

22
Q

Sensory systems mediate four attributes of a stimulus/ have to give our brain (cortex) info about 4 different things about the stimulus. What are these four attributes?

A

Modality: what is that stimulus
Intensity: how strong is the stimulus
Duration: how long is the stimulus there: is there steadily
Location: where is the stimulus coming from and where is it applied to our body

23
Q

Our sensory receptors have different modalities which are?

A

All the brain does is receive AP but how does it know what form of energy the stimulus is (differentiate from light/ sound/etc.)? How does it know i’m hearing something rather than seeing something?

It has to do with connectivity. Our sensory receptors have different modalities.

Receptor modality refers to the form of energy to which the receptor responds.

Mechanical (touch, pressure (incl. sound), vibration, stretch, acceleration)
Thermodynamic ( heat, cold)
Electromagnetic (light)
Chemical (oxygen, pH, odorants, glucose and other organic molecules)
Damaging Intensities (tissue damage or potentially damaging levels of other stimulus modalities)

24
Q

Receptor Adequate Stimulus (Submodality, Specificity)

What is adequate stimulus?

A

-each of our receptors have an adequate stimulus they respond to

my retina do not want to respond to sound waves so its adequate stimulus is light but even more specifically eyes have red/green cones which will respond to a specific wavelength of light; so that is their adequate stimulus

  • we have different types of touch: sharp/vibration; some receptors are specifically trained to detect vibration or very fine textures on things so those will be their adequate stimulus; so touch will be the general modality; our touch receptors have a specific type of touch that it is most sensitive to
  • when that adequate stimulus is applied then that sensory receptor will respond
  • the energy of the adequate stimulus can be very very low and that receptor that is tuned to it will still respond/be able to detect it

-sometimes you can have receptors that can respond to something other than its adequate stimulus even though it is not designed to; it does this when that stimulus is extremely strong even though it is not the adequate stimulus of that receptor; but it responds most easily and with the lowest energy to that stimulus which is its adequate stimulus

when the stimulus is so strong (you get punched in your eye =pressure which is not the adequate stimulus of your rods and cones but they still respond) the response you will get is not a feeling of pressure but a sensation that receptor is supposed to give even though that’s not the energy form that triggered the receptor activity

Adequate stimulus is the specific sub-modality (specific range of modality) to which a receptor is most sensitive.

Red light vs. green light cones
Sweet vs. bitter taste buds
High pitch vs. low pitch sound waves
Light touch versus vibrational touch

Very low levels of the adequate stimulus affects the receptor potential.

25
Q

Labeled Line Coding: Law of Specific Nerve Energies

A
  • this is how the brain knows the AP it is receiving is coming from something that touched you rather than some sound or line frequency
  • the lines coding the pathway that those AP are traveling will only lead to one area in the cortex and that one area of the cortex is dedicated to that specific modality
  • any AP that reach that area of the cortex will give the sensation of that modality; so if those AP reach your somatosensory cortex which is dedicated to processing info from touch then what you will feel is touch even if that pathway was accidentally or intentionally stimulated by some other form of energy

that pathways is dedicated to sensing signals for a specific type of sensation

The 3 neuron pathway that leads to the cortex is dedicated to sending signals about a specific form of energy a specific sensation so anytime signals are passing along that pathway, those signals can only end up giving you one type of sensation

so if that pathway is stimulated electrically in the somatosensory cortex that is dedicated to feeling vibration in your finger, then that’s what you will feel, even though you stimulated not by putting something vibrating against your finger; you just activated that pathway

-allows our brains to know the meaning of those AP

  • allows for localization (in case of somatosensation) of where the stimulus is
  • these pathways are hardwired, coded in your DNA

Excitation of a sensory receptor and sensory neuron elicits only one sub-modality of sensation. This is the labeled line principle.
Localizes the stimulus
Identifies the type of stimulus

Premises:
individual receptors preferentially transduce information about an adequate stimulus
individual primary afferent fibers carry information from a single type of receptor

26
Q

What are the different areas in the brain (somatosensory cortex) dedicated to processing our sensory information?

A

Each sense has its specialized area of cortex which when activated produces the experience associated with that sense.

if you stimulate anywhere along this pathway either with adequate stimulus or some other mode electrically you will get nothing but touch in that area that is dedicated to that pathway

27
Q

Evidence: Labeled Line Coding

A

it will not give anything else but the sense of light if the visual cortex is stimulated

Evidence:
the brain associates a specific modality (adequate stimulus) with a signal coming from a specific receptor

“light” is the sensation generated by stimulation of the photoreceptors, even if the actual stimulus is pressure on the eye.

Stimulation anywhere along the sensory pathways from a sensory receptor to the specialized sensory cortex will only result in one particular sensation

28
Q

How does our brain know how intense that stimulus energy is?

Stimulus Intensity

A

I touch you very lightly or very hard you can feel the difference but how do those AP convey whether it was a light or heavy touch?

  • with increased intensity, more receptors for that modality are activated
  • so with heavy touch, that pressure will spread to adjacent receptors that will end up activating more receptors in that area
  • whatever receptor that is activated by the light touch will also activate the heavy touch but the AP that are generated will be more frequency; so higher intensity= higher frequency of AP going towards that region of the brain

Intensity is coded by:
#ofreceptors activated
-Receptors have variable thresholds
frequencyofAPs
-directly related to the receptor potential
-modified by inhibitory or stimulatory inputs
-modified by adaptation

29
Q

Stimulus intensity is coded by frequency of APs

A

an example of a touch receptor
change in membrane potential (MP) is smaller with light touch; change in MP is correlated to strength of stimulus and correlated to frequency of AP

when the touch is light the change in MP is smaller than when the touch is heavy thus change in MP is higher

the change in MP is correlated to the strength of stimulus which is correlated to the frequency of AP

30
Q

What is adaptation?

A

but what if the receptor can adapt; that means that even though the stimulus is staying at the same intensity the frequency of the AP ends up decreasing overtime which gives you a lower sensation so you don’t really feel the intensity the way that you did in the beginning

-all of our receptors adapt to some extent

Adaptation: Decreased Sensitivity to a Sustained Stimulus

Receptor membranes become less responsive

Receptor potential decreases
Inactivation of Na+ or Ca2+ channels
Activation of K+ channels

Action potentials decline in frequency

Dictated by the receptor structure

31
Q

The more intense the stimulus, the greater the number of receptors stimulated.

A
  • weak stimulus only activates a few of the terminal nerve endings
  • strong stimulus activating many more primary afferent neurons
32
Q

CODING OF STIMULUS INTENSITY AND DURATION

A
  • relates to how much NT is released
  • moderate frequency of AP = a moderate amount of NT released at the terminal of the neuron (calcium is what allows the release of NT released from vesicles)
  1. Receptor potential strength and duration vary with the stimulus.
  2. Receptor potential is integrated at the trigger zone.
  3. FREQUENCY of AP is proportional to stimulus INTENSITY.
    Duration of a series of AP is proportional to stimulus duration.
  4. NT release varies with the pattern of AP arriving at the axon terminal.
33
Q

Stimulus duration iS coded by duration of APs

A
  • how long the stimulus is applied or how long you feel the stimulus is modulated by adaptation
  • the sensation of the duration of the AP can change based on whether the receptor is highly or lowly adaptive

FrequencyofAPs is…

  • directly related to the receptor potential
  • modified by inhibitory or stimulatory inputs
  • modified by adaptation
34
Q

Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

A

tonic receptors adapt very slowly:
-pain fibers show very little adaptive quality

phasic receptors adapt fast:

  • can see the generator potential go down even though the stimulus has not changed; our sensation of the stimulus is decreased
  • occurs with fine touch receptors

A is tonic
B is slowly adaptive as C
C is phasic and very adaptive (put on clothes but then don’t feel the clothes anymore)

Few receptors lack adaptive ability (otoliths: head position)

Tonic receptors (adapt slowly or not at all)

  • nociceptors, proprioceptors, thermoreceptors, crude touch
  • Usually coupled to small diameter, unmyelinated fibers

Phasic receptors (fast-adapting) signal at beginning and end of stimulus

  • pressure, fine touch, smell
  • Usually coupled to large, myelinated fibers
35
Q

Example of adaptions

A

go in the cold water and swim but then don’t feel the cold anymore

sensory adaptation: loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while, as when a swimmer becomes adapted to the temperature of the water

absolute threshold: minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus; usually defined as the stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time

difference threshold: minimum difference between two stimuli that a subject can detect 50% of the time; just noticeable difference (JND); increases with magnitude

36
Q

Relationship Between Stimulus Intensity and Receptor Potential

A

this graph shows that when the stimulus intensity is increased, the MP is increased

there is a point in which that even though the stimulus is increased the receptors potential won’t increase

37
Q

What limits the frequency of AP in a neurons?

A

absolute refractory period

38
Q

Weber’s Law

A
  • how much of a difference between two intensities can we tell
  • this depends on the initial intensity
  • the amount of change necessary to detect difference is related to the INITIAL intensity
  • the higher the initial intensity the higher the change needs to be to be detected

-The larger the magnitude of the stimulus (I) the larger the change in magnitude (ΔI) must be to be detected.

39
Q

Somatosensory Receptors: Receptors Located in Skin, Muscles and Joints

A

Thermoreceptors

  • Respond to temperature changes
  • Heat, cold

Nociceptors (thermo-, chemo-, mechano-)
-Respond to potentially damaging stimuli

Mechanoreceptors

  • Respond to mechanical forces
  • Touch, pressure, vibration, stretch
40
Q

What are the 5 different types of tactile receptors in skin?

A

Hair follicle receptor
Light touch
Moving touch

Pacinian corpuscles
Deep pressure Vibration

Meissner’s corpuscles
Fine touch

Merkel receptors
Pressure and texture

Ruffini endings
Skin stretch
Deep pressure

41
Q

Hair follicle receptor

A

-the hair bulb is surrounded by primary afferent neuron; when the hair follicle is deflected the pressure or
the movement of the hair follicle is transmitted down to the bulb and the primary afferent neuron and hair bulb rub against each other; there are mechanically gated channels on this primary afferent neuron; these channels are then opened up by the friction btw the bulb and primary afferent nerve ending; that friction opens up the mechanically gated channels allowing the influx of Na for depolarization of membrane to generate AP at the initial segment

  • located deep in the dermis
  • they show rapid/high adaption: once the hair follicle is deflected you get AP even though the hair follicle stays deflected the channels close very rapidly and you get no AP even though that pressure deflecting hair follicle may still be there
  • these hair follicle receptors most keen to something moving across your skin (like a bug)
  • myelinated neuron
  • axon diameter relatively large; are Abeta or Agamma

Location: deep dermis
Accessory organ: Hair follicle
Receptor: Free nerve endings tightly coiled around hair follicle
Receptive Field: small
Transduction Mechanism:
1. Hair is deflected
2. Motion of hair follicle against nerve endings triggers opening of mechanosensitive ion channels.
3. Ion channels are opened
4. Ion channels are quickly blocked by collagen fibers

Adaptation: Rapid
Fiber Type: Aβ & Aδ

42
Q

Pacinian corpuscle

A

touch receptor

  • located in the deep dermis and glabrous (hairless) skin
  • they are also proprioceptors; found in the joints capsule so laso give info about how our joints are interacting with each other
  • have an accessory organ structure with concentric layers of flattened lamina; in btw the layers are fluid filled sacs; the structure of these layers are supported by collagenous tissue
  • inside the concentric layers are the nerve terminals
  • spaces between lamellae are filled with fluid

pressure is applied to concentric layers which causes a deflection in the tip of the neuron so a physical interaction opens mechanically gated channels on the top of the sensory ending –> influx of Na –>depolarization–> AP

  • so even though I keep the pressure here; because there is a lot of fluid, the fluid disperses moves around so that the tip of the nerve is no longer deflected even though the stimulus of the pressure is still there; this neuron is no longer being stimulated; AP stops
  • this is a very good example of a phasic response; when the stimulus is first applied it goes away rapidly and then you get APs when the stimulus is removed
  • large myelinated fibers type: Aalpha
  • receptive field is large so you don’t need a lot of them
  • they are structured very well to detect vibration 9its pressure coming and going)

rapidly adapting

Location:
deep dermis hairy and glabrous skin
joint capsules (proprioceptor)
Accessory Organ Structure:
concentric lamellae of flattened cells
supported by collagenous tissue
spaces between lamellae are filled with fluid 
Receptor structure:
bare nerve terminals
occupies center of corpuscle 
Receptive field: large
Fiber type: Aβ

Transduction Mechanism:
Applied pressure is transmitted to the nerve terminal deforming it
Mechanically gated Na+ ion channels are opened, depolarizing the membrane.
AP are generated along the fiber .
Fluid between lamellae is quickly dispersed, relieving the pressure on the terminal.
Membrane potential returns to resting level
Removal of the probe again deforms nerve terminal resulting in depolarization.

43
Q

Meissner’s Corpuscle: Light Touch, Textures and Vibration

A
  • structured to give sensation of light tough
  • allows to feel texture
  • gives a sensation of vibration but as of high frequency like the pacinian corpuscle
  • located beneath the epidermis on the plantar surface of hands and feet
  • have stacks of epithelial cells that are intertwined with the neuron terminal; allows disks to slide against each other when light touch is felt; activating mechanically gated channels on these terminal endings leading to depolarization
  • these like the pacinian are rapidly adaptive but have smaller receptive field
  • Abeta

Location:
Beneath the epidermis
fingers, palm of the hand, plantar surface of the foot toes (glabrous skin)
Accessory Organ Structure:
Stacks of horizontally flattened epithelial cells enclosed in a connective tissue sheath.
Receptor structure:
bare nerve terminals arborizes among the epithelial cells

Receptive field: small

Adaptation: Rapid

Fiber type: Aβ

44
Q

Merkel’s Cells

A
  • another fine touch receptors
  • allows us to feel the shape of things (edges, corners)
  • the sensation of light touch is detected by this Merkel cell that is in the superficial layer of the epidermis

-now this is DIFFERENT; there is a separate structure= the primary afferent neuron and the Merkel’s cell; the actual sensory receptor is an element that is separate from the primary afferent neuron but they are very closely aligned with each

so the sensation of light touch is detected by the Merkel’s cells that is in the superficial layers of our epidermis

-you use this along with Meissner’s to read braille

  • when there is pressure applied to the skin; mechanically gated channels are opened in the Merkel’s cells
  • this Merkel’s cell produces NT which is then released onto the primary afferent neuron which has receptors for those NT allowing you to get an AP after neuron terminal is depolarized
  • receptive field is small
  • slowly adapting

Location: below the epidermis, lips, finger tips (glabrous skin)
Receptor: Large epithelial cell in close contact with a sensory neuron terminal
Transduction: Merkel’s cell releases neurotransmitter

Receptive Field: Small
Adaptation: slowly adapting

45
Q

Rufini’s Endings skin stretch

A
  • are specialized to detect stretch
  • spread fingers very widely and get tightening sensation that is Ruffini’s endings
  • located in the deep dermis layer in both types of skin
  • embedded in collagenous capsule
  • large receptive field
  • Abeta
  • slowly adapting

Located: Deep dermis layer of both hairy and glabrous skin

Receptor: Endings of sensory neuron encapsulated within bundles of collagen fibrils that are connected with similar fibrils of the dermis

Receptive Field: large
Fiber type: Aβ
Adaptation: Slow

46
Q

Summary of Receptors

A

Pacinian Corpuscle:

  • deep touch
  • vibration
  • large, vague borders receptive field
  • fast adapting

Meissner’s Corpuscle:

  • fine touch
  • small, sharp borders receptive field
  • fast adapting

Merkel’s disc:

  • texture/touch
  • small, sharp borders receptive field
  • slow adapting

Ruffini’s ending:

  • stretch
  • large vague borders receptive field
  • slow adapting

Chika- SF2 (63 decks)

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