MCAT Psych #6 Flashcards
self concept
our own internal list of answers to the question Who am I?
o Goes beyond self-schemata (labels such as athlete, physician) because it includes who we used to be and who we will become.
self schema
a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities.
o Ex: athlete: physical fitness, youth, behavior
identity
the individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong.
o While we have one self-concept, we have many identities that define who we are and how we should behave in a given context.
o Ex: religious affiliation, personal relationships, and membership in social groups.
o Different social situation = different identity
gender identity
describes a person’s appraisal of him- or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity.
children are more likely to model individuals who are _____
more like themselves
the happiest people on earth have:
high self-esteem, view themselves as effective people, feel that they are in control of their destinies, and see themselves living up to their own expectations.
androgyny
the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine.
undifferentiated
receive low scores on both tests of masculinity and femininity
gender schema
key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means. These means help to shape the gender of an individual.
ethnic identity
refers to one’s ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language.
• Exp: white vs. black doll and most of the kids chose the white doll as the one they preferred.
nationality
based on political borders.
• Shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols such as a flag.
• Does not need to be tied to ethnicity or legal citizenship.
hierarchy of salience
we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment.
The more important the identity the more we conform to its roles and expectations at that moment
self discrepancy theory
maintains that each of us has three selves.
Actual self: made up by self-concept, the way we see ourselves as we currently are.
Ideal self: the person who we would like to be
Ought self: our representation of the way others think we should be.
The closer these are to each other, the higher the self-esteem.
• People with low self-esteem are more critical of themselves.
actual self
self discrepancy theory
made up by self-concept, the way we see ourselves as we currently are.
ideal self
self discrepancy theory
the person who we would like to be
ought self
self discrepancy theory
our representation of the way others think we should be.
who others want us to be
self-efficacy
o Self-efficacy: our belief in our ability to succeed.
Differs depending on the task
Overconfidence: self-efficacy is too high, leads us to take on tasks for which we are not ready, leading to frustration, humiliation, and injury.
Learned helplessness: when you begin to feel controlless, you give up, even when the opportunity to have control is given back to you.
overconfidence
Overconfidence: self-efficacy is too high, leads us to take on tasks for which we are not ready, leading to frustration, humiliation, and injury.
learned helplessness
Learned helplessness: when you begin to feel control-less, you give up, even when the opportunity to have control is given back to you.
Ex: dogs in the experiment that had no control over the administration of shocks to them. Even when given the opportunity to avoid the shocks, they continued to act hopeless.
occurs when an individual continuously faces a negative, uncontrollable situation and stops trying to change their circumstances, even when they have the ability to do so.
locus of control
the way we characterize the influences in our lives.
Internal or external depending on who you feel controls your life.
freud psychosexual development
o Libido: sex drive (Freud believed it is present at birth)
o Fixation: occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development.
Neurosis: the child forms a personality pattern based on the particular stage and it persists into adulthood.
o Five stages of psychosexual development: at each stage faced with conflict between societal demands and libidinal tension
1. Oral stage (0-1 years old): libidinal energy is focused on the mouth and putting objects into the mouth
2. Anal stage (1-3 years old): libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials.
3. Phallic or Oedipal stage (3-5 years old): resolution of the Oedipal conflict for males or Electra conflict for females.
• Male wants to be his father and take over his mother but this feeling is sublimated by focusing on things like school work or doing other stuff.
• Girls experience penis envy
• Ends when libido is sublimated.
4. Latency stage (after phallic and until puberty): libido is sublimated
5. Genital stage (puberty-adulthood): normal development heterosexual practices, non-normal development other practices (homosexuality or fetishes)
libido
sex drive (Freud believed it is present at birth)
fixation
Freud Psychosexual development
occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development. Results in: Neurosis: the child forms a personality pattern based on the particular stage and it persists into adulthood.
neurosis
Freud
the child forms a personality pattern based on the particular stage and it persists into adulthood.
Five stages of psychosexual development
Freud
at each stage faced with conflict between societal demands and libidinal tension
- Oral stage (0-1)
- Anal stage (1-2)
- Phallic or Oedipal stage (3-5)
- latency stage (after phallic and until puberty)
- genital stage
Oral stage
Freud Psychosexual Development
(0-1 years old): libidinal energy is focused on the mouth and putting objects into the mouth
fixation can lead to excessive dependency
Anal stage
Freud Psychosexual Development
stage (1-3 years old): libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials.
fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness
phallic or oedipal stage
Freud Psychosexual Development
(3-5 years old): resolution of the Oedipal conflict for males or Electra conflict for females.
• Male wants to be his father and take over his mother but this feeling is sublimated by focusing on things like school work or doing other stuff.
• Girls experience penis envy
• Ends when libido is sublimated
latency stage
Freud Psychosexual Development
(after phallic and until puberty): libido is sublimated
genital stage
Freud Psychosexual Development
(puberty-adulthood): normal development heterosexual practices, non-normal development other practices (homosexuality or fetishes)
Erikson: Psychosocial development
o Based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands.
Emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment.
Don’t have to successfully compete each stage to move on but gain necessary skills.
What are the conflicts of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Decisions we have to make about ourselves and the environment around us at each phase of our lives.
Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 years old):
• Trust wins: trust environment and self
• Mistrust wins: suspicious of the world.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years old):
• Win: control over the world and self-restraint
• Loss: external locus of control
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years old):
• Win: sense of purpose, initiate activity, feel accomplished
• Loss: fear of punishment
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years old)
• Win: feel competent and exercise abilities and intelligence
• Loss: incompetent, sense of inadequacy and low self esteem
Identify vs. role confusion (12-20 years old)
• Physiological revolution
• Win: ability to see oneself as unique and integrated with sustained loyalties
• Loss: confusion of identity and personality shifts
Intimacy vs. isolation (20-40 years old)
• Win: love, intimate relationships, commit to another person
• Loss: avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing.
Generativity vs. stagnation (40-65 years old)
• Win: individual is productive, capable and contributing member of society
• Loss: stagnation, little care for others, bored
Integrity vs. despair (above 65 years old)
• Win: wisdom and gratefulness for life
• Loss: bitterness about one’s life, life has been worthless.
trust vs. mistrust
Erikson
0-1
Can I trust the world?
• Trust wins: trust environment and self
• Mistrust wins: suspicious of the world.
autonomy vs. shape and doubt
Erikson 1-3 years old Is it okay to be me? • Win: control over the world and self-restraint • Loss: external locus of control
initiative vs. guilt
Erikson 3-6 Is it okay for me to do, move, and act? • Win: sense of purpose, initiate activity, feel accomplished • Loss: fear of punishment
industry vs. inferiority
Erikson
6-12
Can I make it in the world of people and things?
• Win: feel competent and exercise abilities and intelligence
• Loss: incompetent, sense of inadequacy and low self esteem
identity vs. role confusion
Erikson
12-20
Who am I? What can I be?
• Physiological revolution
• Win: ability to see oneself as unique and integrated with sustained loyalties
• Loss: confusion of identity and personality shifts
intimacy vs. isolation
Erikson
20-40
Can I love?
• Win: love, intimate relationships, commit to another person
• Loss: avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing.
generativity vs. stagnation
Erikson
40-65
Can I make my life count?
• Win: individual is productive, capable and contributing member of society
• Loss: stagnation, little care for others, bored
integrity vs. despair
Erikson above 65 years old Is it okay to have been me? • Win: wisdom and gratefulness for life • Loss: bitterness about one’s life, life has been worthless.
Kohlberg: moral reasoning
o Focuses on the development of moral thinking
o Observations were based off of observations of responses to moral dilemmas.
6 stages of Kohlberg Moral Reasoning
Resolving moral dilemmas
Phase 1: Preconventional morality (preadolescent thinking): places an emphasis on the consequences of the moral choice
• Stage 1: Obedience: concerned with punishment
• Stage 2: Self Interest: gaining rewards
o Instrumental relativist stage: based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing: scratch my back if I scratch yours
Phase 2: Conventional Morality (early adolescence): individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others. Understanding and accepting social rules.
• Stage 3: conformity: person seeks the approval of others
• Stage 4: law and order: maintains the social order in the highest regard (if everyone stole, the people who produce the items would not be able to run their business).
Phase 3: Postconventional morality: level of reasoning that not everyone can have
• Stage 5: social contract: views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights
• Stage 6: universal human ethics: reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principle
o Progress through the stages as thinking matures.
Preconventional morality
Kohlberg’s theory of Development of Moral Reasoning
Phase 1: Preconventional morality (preadolescent thinking): places an emphasis on the consequences of the moral choice
• Stage 1: Obedience: concerned with punishment
• Stage 2: Self Interest: gaining rewards
o Instrumental relativist stage: based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing: scratch my back if I scratch yours
Conventional Morality
Kohlberg’s theory of Development of Moral Reasoning
Phase 2: Conventional Morality (early adolescence): individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others. Understanding and accepting social rules.
• Stage 3: conformity: person seeks the approval of others
• Stage 4: law and order: maintains the social order in the highest regard (if everyone stole, the people who produce the items would not be able to run their business).
Postconventional morality
Kohlberg’s theory of Development of Moral Reasoning
Phase 3: Postconventional morality: level of reasoning that not everyone can have
• Stage 5: social contract: views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights
• Stage 6: universal human ethics: reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principle
Kohlberg Stage 1
Obedience: concerned with punishment
Kohlberg Stage 2
Self Interest: gaining rewards
Kohlberg Stage 3
conformity: person seeks the approval of others
Kohlberg Stage 4
law and order: maintains the social order in the highest regard (if everyone stole, the people who produce the items would not be able to run their business).
Kohlberg Stage 5
social contract: views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights
Kohlberg Stage 6
universal human ethics: : reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principle
Vygotsky: Cultural and Biosocial Development
o Focused on understanding cognitive development
o The engine driving cognitive development was the child’s internalization of various aspects of culture.
o Zone of proximal development: those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development.
Gaining the skill oftentimes requires the help of a more knowledgeable individual
Ex: riding a bike
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky
those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development.
Gaining the skill oftentimes requires the help of a more knowledgeable individual
Ex: riding a bike
Bobo doll experiment
o Bobo doll experiment: observational learning contributes to our future behaviors.
Child would also attack doll. But if the actor got yelled at then the child would not attack the doll.
role-taking
children playing house, good for future to understand perspectives and roles of others.
theory of mind
the ability to sense how another’s mind works
Ex: understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it
looking glass self
others reflecting our selves back on ourselves and us modifying behavior based on it. Can also lead to a change in personality: maintaining, modifying, etc.
Individuals base their sense of self on how others view them.
describes the process wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them. Using social interaction as a type of “mirror,” people use the judgments they receive from others to measure their own worth, values, and behavior.
reference group
our self-concept depends on whom we are comparing ourselves to.
Ex: physicians are rich compared to the average household but compared to people they live with (very wealthy) they may not be considered as rich.
personality
describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations
identity vs. personality
Identity describes who we are while personality describes how we act and react to the world around us.
Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality.
Freud: id, ego, and superego
Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
Has been discredited
• Id: consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce.
o Pleasure principle: the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension.
o Primary process: the id’s response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now not later.
o Wish fulfillment: mental imagery, such as daydreaming, fulfills the need for satisfaction.
o Cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis.
• Ego:
o Reality principle: taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle.
o Secondary process: guidance, postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained.
o Working with reality promotes growth of perception.
o Moderates the desires of the superego.
• Superego: personality’s perfectionist, ideal self, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures. Divided into two subsystems which are morals taught by caregivers.
o 1. The conscious: a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished
o 2. Ego-ideal: consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded.
Id
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce.
o Pleasure principle: the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension.
o Primary process: the id’s response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now not later.
o Wish fulfillment: mental imagery, such as daydreaming, fulfills the need for satisfaction.
o Cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis.
Pleasure principle
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
Id
the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension.
Primary process
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
Id
the id’s response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now not later.
Wish fulfillment
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
Id
mental imagery, such as daydreaming, fulfills the need for satisfaction and relieves some of the tension created by the pleasure principle.
Ego
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
o Reality principle: taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle.
o Secondary process: guidance, postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained.
o Working with reality promotes growth of perception.
o Moderates the desires of the superego.
reality principle
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
Ego
taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle.
The aim of the reality principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained.
secondary process
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
Ego
guidance, postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained.
o Working with reality promotes growth of
superego
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
personality’s perfectionist, ideal self, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures. Divided into two subsystems which are morals taught by caregivers.
o 1. The conscious: a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished
o 2. Ego-ideal: consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded.
The conscious (Freud)
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
Superego
a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished
Ego-ideal
Freud Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
Superego
consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded.
Freud and behavioral instinct: what is Freud’s definition of instincts?
Our behaviors are influenced by instinct: an innate psychological representation of biological need.
• Separates these instincts into life and death instincts.
Defense mechanisms
Freud
falsify, deny, or distort reality and operate unconsciously. Reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli.
used by the ego to relieve the clash between the id and the superego.
what are the 8 defense mechanisms
freud
repression. suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation
repression
Freud Defense mechanism unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
a man who survived 6 months at a concentration camp cant remember anything from that time period
suppression
Freud Defense mechanism consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
a terminally ill cancer patient has put away his anxiety to enjoy a family gathering
regression
Freud Defense mechanism returning to an earlier stage of development
a husband speaks to his wife in baby talk when telling her bad news
reaction formation
Freud Defense mechanism
an unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
suppress urges by unconsciously converting to opposites.
two coworkers fight all the time because they are actually very attracted to each other
projection
Freud Defense mechanism
attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else
a man who has committed adultery is convinced his wife is cheating on him despite a lack of evidence
rationalization
Freud Defense mechanism
justification of attitudes, beliefs, behaviors
a murderer who claims that, while killing is wrong, his victim deserved it
displacement
Freud Defense mechanism
changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same
when sent to his room as a punishment, a child begins to punch and kick his pillow
sublimation
Freud Defense mechanism
channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction
a boss who is attracted to his employee becomes her mentor and advisor
Rorschach inkblot test:
Freud - Projection
the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape.
Thematic apperception test
Freud - Projection
consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one. Story elucidates unconscious feelings.
Carl Jung and Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
Also believe there was a psychic energy but not just a psychic energy rooted in sexuality
Ego: conscious mind
Unconscious: personal unconscious and collective unconscious
Personal unconscious
Jung
similar to Freud’s
unconscious is the product of personal experiences
collective unconscious
Jung
powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors.
archetypes
archetypes
Jung psychoanalytic theory of personality
universal, archaic symbols and images that derive from the collective unconscious
underlying forms or concepts that give rise to archetypal images, which may differ between cultures. Universal patterns and images: the god and the devil.
Include persona, anima, animus, and shadow
persona archetype
Jung psychoanalytic theory of personality
a mask that we wear in public, and is the part of our personality that we present to the world.
• Adaptive to social interactions: emphasize qualities that improve our social standing while suppressing qualities that are less desirable.
anima archetype
Jung psychoanalytic theory of personality
(feminine): sex-inappropriate qualities.
• The suppressed female quality in males.
• Emotional behavior
animus archetype
Jung psychoanalytic theory of personality
Animus (masculine) sex-inappropriate qualities
• Power-seeking behavior.
shadow archetype
Jung psychoanalytic theory of personality
the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness.
The self, according to Jung
Jung psychoanalytic theory of personality
the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind.
The self strives for unity.
Saw the self as a mandala: the promoter of unity, balance, and harmony.
What are Jung’s 3 dichotomies of personality
Extraversion vs. introversion
Sensing vs. intuiting
Thinking vs. feeling
Jung: extraversion vs. introversion
Jung
orientation toward the external world vs. orientation toward the inner, personal world
Jung: sensing vs. intuiting
Jung
obtaining objective information vs. working with info abstractedly
Jung: thinking vs. feeling
using logic and reason vs. using a value system or personal beliefs
Who are three notable Psychoanalytics
Freud, Jung, Adler
Alfred Adler
People are motivated by striving for superiority
immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors.
• Inferiority complex: an individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially.
• Creative self: the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality.
• Style of life: the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority.
• Fictional finalism: an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences.
inferiority complex
Adler psychoanalytic personality
an individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially.
creative self
Adler psychoanalytic personality
the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality.
style of life
Adler psychoanalytic personality
the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority.
The family environment is crucial for molding the person’s style of life.
fictional finalism
Adler psychoanalytic personality
an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences.
Karen Horney
disagreed with Freud: argued that personality is a result of interpersonal relationships
• Neurotic needs: individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by neurotic needs
o These needs are directed toward making life and interactions bearable.
o Ex: need for independence, need for affection
o The needs can become problematic.
• Basic anxiety: inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness
• Basic hostility: result of neglect and rejection
o To overcome these, children move to people, against people, or away from people.
o Threatened child will only use one of these and too much and will carry it into adulthood.
Neurotic needs
Horney psychoanalytic
individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by neurotic needs
o These needs are directed toward making life and interactions bearable.
o Ex: need for independence, need for affection
o The needs can become problematic.
basic anxiety
Horney psychoanalytic
inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness
To overcome these, children move to people, against people, or away from people.
o Threatened child will only use one of these and too much and will carry it into adulthood.
basic hostility
Horney psychoanalytic
result of neglect and rejection
o To overcome these, children move to people, against people, or away from people.
o Threatened child will only use one of these and too much and will carry it into adulthood.
object relations theory
psychoanalytic theory (no one in particular) object refers to the representation of parents or other caregivers based on the subjective experiences during early infancy. • Carry these objects into adulthood.
relating to others, forming bonds with others.
The Humanistic Perspective (Phenomenological theorists)
o Focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which heathy people strive toward self-realization.
o Related to gestalt therapy: practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives.
gestalt therapy
practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives.
Kurt Lewin
Huministic Perspective
Force Field theory: puts very little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, or structures such as the id, ego, and superego.
Drive change and resist change
Focused on the present
Abraham Maslow
Huministic Perspective
Self -actualized people have more peak experiences
• Peak experiences: profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life that have important and lasting effects on the individual.
George Kelly
Huministic Perspective
Personal construct psychology: person has constructs that will help them predict an event and it effects their personality.
Carl Rogers
Huministic Perspective
Client-centered or person-centered or nondirective therapy: helps the client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his or her own destiny.
People have the freedom to control their own destiny.
Unconditional positive regard: a therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empath yin order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.
Force Field Theory
Lewin Humanistic
Force Field theory: puts very little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, or structures such as the id, ego, and superego.
Drive change and resist change
Peak experiences
Maslow Humanistic
profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life that have important and lasting effects on the individual.
Personal construct psychology
George Kelly Humanistic
person has constructs that will help them predict an event and it effects their personality.
client centered/person centered/nondirective therapy
Carl Rogers - Humanistic
helps the client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his or her own destiny.
This type of therapy diverged from the traditional model of the therapist as expert and moved instead toward a nondirective, empathic approach that empowers and motivates the client in the therapeutic process.
unconditional positive regard
Carl Rogers - Humanistic
a therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empath yin order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.
Type theorists
attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types.
Greek type theorists
o Greeks devised personality types based on humors or body fluids and their imbalance.
There is like a pinwheel thing
William Sheldon
Proposed personality types based on body types: somatotypes
short and stalky: jolly
tall: high strung and aloof
Compare Type A and Type B
Type A: behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive.
Type B: laid-back and relaxed
Type A
Type Theory
behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive.
Type B
Type Theory
laid-back and relaxed
Trait theorists
describe personality as the sum of a person’s characteristic behaviors.
Hans and Sybil Eysenck
Trait Theorists
looked at behavior in groups and assigned labels
Three traits in the PEN model
• Psychoticism: noncomformity or social deviance
• Extraversion: tolerance for social interaction and stimulation
• Neuroticism: a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
People are distinguished from each other based on these
Now big five traits of personality: OCEAN
• Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
What are the 3 traits in the PEN model
Trait theory
• Psychoticism: noncomformity or social deviance
• Extraversion: tolerance for social interaction and stimulation
• Neuroticism: a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
What are the 5 big personality traits
Trait theory
OCEAN
• Openness, conscientiousness (does one work well and thoroughly), extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (moody, anxiety)
Gordon Allport
trait theory
Three basic types of traits
• Cardinal: traits around which a person organizes his or her life
• Central: major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, honesty or charisma
• Secondary: other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence.
o Only occur in specific situations
Functional autonomy: a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior.
• Hunting for food and then continuing to hunt after the food is caught for the fun of it.
cardinal traits
Allport-Trait Theory
traits around which a person organizes his or her life
central traits
Allport-Trait Theory
major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, honesty or charisma
secondary traits
Allport-Trait Theory
other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence.
o Only occur in specific situations
functional autonomy
Allport-Trait Theory
Functional autonomy: a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior.
• Hunting for food and then continuing to hunt after the food is caught for the fun of it.
That which began as a means to obtain a goal has become the goal itself.
David McClelland
Trait Theory
N-Ach: need for achievement:
• High N-Ach: concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments. Will not undertake something too challenging (might not get it) or too easy (easy tasks will not generate a sense of achievement)
behaviorist approach
B.F. Skinner
Based on the concepts of operant conditionings.
Personality is a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time.
Token Economies: positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers.
Social cognitive perspective: takes into account not only how our environment influences our behavior but also how we interact with the environment
• Reciprocal determinism (Albert Bandura): the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.
• Best predictor of behavior is past behavior in similar situations.
biological perspective
: personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain
Linked to traits many traits are result of genes or differences in brain anatomy.
token economies
Behaviorist
positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers.
social cognitive perspective
behaviorist
takes into account not only how our environment influences our behavior but also how we interact with the environment
Albert Bandura
behaviorist
reciprocal determinism: the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.
People mold their environments according to their personalities and those environments in turn shape our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
reciprocal determinism
Behaviorist-bandura:
the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.
People mold their environments according to their personalities and those environments in turn shape our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
whereas we have one all-encompassing ____, we have multiple _______ that define who we are and how we should behave within any given context
self-concept
identities
is the concept of gender identity on a single continuum?
no, because individuals can score high in both masculinity and femininity so they must be two different dimensions.
compare androgyny and undifferentiated individuals
androgyny: scored high on both the masculinity and femininity test
undifferentiated: scored low on both stests.
sex vs. sexual orientation vs. gender identity
sex: biological
sexual orientation: who you are attracted to
gender: how masculine or feminine an individual is
Cultural Heritage
an expression of the ways of living developed by a community and passed on from generation to generation, including customs, practices, places, objects, artistic expressions and values
what is the general term for the following terms: age, class, religious affiliation, and sexual oritentation
these are all types of identities
salient and how salience is influenced in terms of identities
most notable or important
the more salient identities we have are the ones we have put the most work into, the ones that have the most rewards and gratification, and the amount of self esteem we have associated with the identity.
what theory are the following terms from: actual self, ideal self, ought self?
self-discrepancy theory
The closer the actual self, ideal self, ought self are, the higher our _____ is.
self-esteem
what are some characteristics of individuals with low self esteem?
they are more critical of themselves, they do not take criticism well, they believe others will not like them unless they are successful, more likely to use drugs and be pessimistic.
compare self-efficacy and self-esteem
self-esteem: a measure of how we feel about ourselves
self-efficacy: our belief in our ability to succeed
when our self-efficacy is too high, it is known as _____
overconfidence
internal locus of control
people with this locus of control view themselves as controlling their own fate
external locus of control
people with this locus of control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences
compare self concept and identity
self concept is the sum of all phrases that come to mind when we think of who we are, who we used to be, and who we may become in the future
identity describes a set of behaviors and labels we take on when in a specific group.
compare ethnic identity and nationality
ethnic identity encompasses shared heritage, ancestry, and language, while nationality is not determined by birth but rather political borders and the culutral identity of that nation.
Compare Freud’s psychosexual development and the drive reduction theory of motivation:
libidinal energy creates internal tension, which we aim to reduce through certain behaviors
what is the main theme of Freud’s psychosexual development theory?
in each stage, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body
According to Freud’s theory of Psychosexual Development, an orally fixated individual would _____
show excessive dependency in an adult
According to Freud’s theory of Psychosexual Development, an anally fixated individual would _____
excessive orderliness or sloppiness in an adult
what is penis envy and when does it occur?
occurs in the phallic/oedipal stage theorized by Sigmund Freud regarding female psychosexual development, in which female adolescents experience anxiety upon realization that they do not have a penis.
what did Freud predict as the end result if someone completed identity development successfully?
heterosexuality
Erickson’s stages of personality development are based on a series of _____
crises from conflicts between needs and social demands
is the mastery of each stage required to move on to the next in Erikson’s psychosocial development of identity?
no, mastery is not required.
is it possible to become stuck in one of Freud’s stages?
yes
If successful, at the end of each stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development of identity, an individual will be imbued with ______
skills and traits that are carried to subsequent stages
which stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development of identity features physiological revolution?
identity vs. role confusion
in contrast to Freud and Erikson, Kohlberg’s theory of personality development focuses on the ______ rather than resolving conflicts and urges
development of moral thinking
what are the two names for Kohlberg’s second stage of morality?
conventional morality and instrumental relativist stage
what does Kohlberg’s preconventional phase of moral reasoning emphasize?
consequences of moral choice
what does stage 2 of Kohlberg’s preconventinal phase of moral reasoning emphasize?
the concepts of reciprocity and sharing
what does Kohlberg’s conventional phase of moral reasoning emphasize?
based on understanding and accepting social rules
what does Kohlberg’s postconventional phase of moral reasoning emphasize?
based on social mores and how they may conflict with laws
can everyone obtain the abilities in Kohlberg’s postconventional phase of moral reasoning?
No
how does Kohlberg view progression through his stages of moral reasoning?
after finishing a stage, you abandon it for the next stage which encompasses higher moral thinking and maturity.
some people argue that postconventional morality describes views that are more prevalent in ____ societies and is biased against ____ societies
individualist
collectivist
what is a skill that is considered within the zone of proximal development?
a skill that with the guidance and help from a mentor or adult can be obtained (riding a bike)
albert bandura thoughts on development of identity?
develops by observing and mimicking the behaviors of others, our role models: parents, siblings, and eventually our peers as we grow up.
discuss the types of reasoning in each of Kohlberg’s phases:
preconventional: reasoning based on rewards and punishments
conventional: reasoning based on relationship with society
postconventional: reasoning based on abstract principles.
does the zone of proximal development only apply to children?
no, it can apply to anyone in the process of developing a skill.
____ describes who we are, while ____ describes how we act and react to the world around us
identity
personality
The aim of the ______ is to postpone the ____ until satisfaction can actually be obtained.
reality principle
pleasure principle
does the ego moderate the id or the superego?
both
id desires: basic needs
superego desires: ideal self
What are the 3 main categories describing our access to the id, ego, and superego?
- thoughts to which we have conscious access
- preconscious: thoughts that we are not currently aware of
- unconscious: thoughts that have been repressed
What are the two categories of Freudian instincts and discuss them
- life instincts: Eros: survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs
- death instincts: thanatos: an unconscious wish for death and destruction
how does the ego mediate the clash between the id and the superego?
defense mechanisms
what are two common characteristics of all defense mechanisms?
- deny, falsify, or distort reality
2. operate unconsciously
what did later psychoanalytic theorists give more emphasis to?
the effect of interpersonal, sociological, and cultural influences on personality
Jung’s collectives unconscious is rooted in ____
archetypes
emotional images of common experiences
God and Devil
Mother and father
the anima is the suppressed ___ qualities in _____ while the animus is the suppressed ___ qualities in ____.
female qualities in males
male qualities in females
anima is also known as
man’s inner woman
animus is also known as
woman’s inner man
Jung: judging vs. perceiving
judging: preferring orderliness
perceiving: preferring spontaneity
How do Adler’s theories differentiate from Jung and Freud?
focused on the immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors
Neurotic needs are directed toward ___
making life and interactions more bearable.
According to Horney, a healthy child will use which strategies to combat basic anxiety and basic hostility?
All 3: move toward, against, or away from people
A highly threatened child will use just one of these strategies more rigidly and for the rest of their lives.
contrast psychoanalysts and humanists
psychoanalysts focus on sick individuals and their troubling urges, while humanistic theorists take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization.
for humanists, our personality is the result of _____
the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals.
Describe Kurt Lewin’s force field theory: what is the field, what is the force?
field: one’s current state of mind, sum of the forces
force: influences on an individual (can be positive or negative toward the individual’s goals)
According to personal construct theory, why is an individual anxious?
George Kelly - Humanistic
they are having difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in the environment.
compare type and trait theorists
type: taxonomy of personality types
trait: individual personality is the sum of a person’s characteristic behaviors.
Draw Greek pinwheel type theory
yellow bile: fire: aggressive and dominant
blood: air: impulsive and charismatic
phlegm: water: relaxed and affectionate
black bile: earth: depressive and cautious
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory
Jung's + 1 Extroversion vs. Introversion Sensing vs. intuiting thinking vs. feeling judging vs. perceiving
Big 5 Trait theory: openness
open to trying new things
Big 5 Trait theory: conscientiousness
thoughtfulness, paying attention to detail, goal-oriented behaviors
Big 5 Trait theory: extraversion
center of attention, start new conversations, meet new people
Big 5 Trait theory: agreeableness
interest in others, empathy for others, cares about others
Big 5 Trait theory: neuroticism
high neuroticism means gets stressed easily, worries, moody.
does everyone develop a cardinal trait?
no.
behaviorist therapy
focuses on learning skills and changing behaviors based on operant conditioning techniques such as token economies.
the ____ perspective takes behaviorism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our behavior, but also on how ____
we interact with our environment.
for a social cognitive theorist, the best predictor of future behavior is _____
past behavior in similar situations
the ___ approach states that behavior is primarily determined by an individual’s personality, or the ____ approach says it is determined by the environment and context
dispositional
situational
talked about more in attribution theory
compare identity and personality
identity: who we are
personality: describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors, that are characteristic of each of us across time and different locations
is the ought self part of self concept?
no, self concept has to do with how we see ourselves
the ought self deals with how others see us.
