MCAT Psych #4 Flashcards
study of congition
looks at how our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world.
dual coding theory
states that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information.
o Ex: word dad and picture of dad can recall the same information
the information processing model
o 1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
o 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making
o 3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification)
o 4. Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem.
cognitive development
the development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the life span.
o Adolescent first focuses on mastering the physical environment and then turns to abstract thinking.
adolescent first focuses on mastering the _____ then turns to ______
physical environment
abstract thinking
Jean Piaget
one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology.
Divided the life span into four stages of cognitive development. Continuous passage through them with the completion of one stage preparing you for the next one.
schema
organized patterns of behavior or thought: a concept (what is a dog?), a behavior (what do you do when someone asks your name?), or a sequence of events (what do you normally do in a sit-down restaurant?)
• a schema describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them
• new info has to be placed into the schema as a child ages
adaptation
the way new information is processed (2 parts)
• Assimilation: the process of classifying new information into existing schema
• Accommodation: the process by which existing schema are modified to encompass this new information.
assimilation
the process of classifying new information into existing schema
accommodation
the process by which existing schema are modified to encompass this new information.
What are Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
- sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)
- preoperational stage (2-7 years)
- concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
- formal operational stage (11 years)
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget
Manipulate environment to meet physical needs
Circular reactions (2):
• Primary circular reactions: the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb (repeated cause the child finds it soothing)
• Secondary circular reactions: manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from high chair.
Object permanence (ends this stage): objects continue to exist even when out of view.
• Representational thought (marked by object permanence): the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events.
Preoperational stage
Piaget
Characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.
Symbolic thinking: the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
Egocentrism: the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
Centration: the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation
• Ex: same pizza on two plates but one is cut in half, child will pick the two slices even though it is the same size.
Concrete operational stage
Piaget
Children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others.
Logical thought, not abstract thought
Formal operational stage
Piaget
Ability to think logically about abstract ideas.
Problem solve.
Piaget’s pendulum experiment helps separate the 3rd and 4th stages.
primary circular reactions
Piaget/Sensorimotor Stage
the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb (repeated cause the child finds it soothing)
secondary circular reactions
Piaget/Sensorimotor Stage manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from high chair. Repeat it because of the response from the environment.
object permanence
Piaget/Sensorimotor Stage
(ends this stage): objects continue to exist even when out of view.
• Representational thought (marked by object permanence): the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events.
representational thought
thought (marked by object permanence): the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events.
symbolic thinking
Piaget/Preoperational Stage
the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
Egocentrism
Piaget/Preoperational Stage
the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
centration
Piaget/Preoperational Stage
the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation
• Ex: same pizza on two plates but one is cut in half, child will pick the two slices even though it is the same size.
how does culture effect cognitive development
o Determines what one is expected to learn and the rate of cognitive development
Lev Vygotsky
proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language.
internalization
is directly associated with learning within an organism (or business) and recalling what has been learned. In psychology and sociology, internalization involves the integration of attitudes, values, standards and the opinions of others into one’s own identity or sense of self
What are the two categories that IQ is broken up into
Fluid intelligence: consists of problem-solving skills
Crystallized intelligence: use of learned skills and knowledge
Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to reason and think flexibly. Crystallized intelligence refers to the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills that are acquired throughout life.
fluid intelligence
IQ
consists of problem-solving skills
Shown to peak in early adulthood
crystallized intelligence
IQ
use of learned skills and knowledge
Shown to peak in middle adulthood
activities of daily living
eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, and ambulation (correlate with decline in intellectual abilities)
heredity, environment, and biologic can be affect cognition
Heredity: down syndrome, in the genes
Environment: parenting styles, promoting certain behaviors, chemical exposures
Biological: illness, etc. during birth, alcohol intake
delirium
rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes. Ex: pH disturbances, infection, malnutrition, etc.
mental set
the tendency to approach similar problems on the same way.
functional fixedness
the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner.
what are the types of problem solving
trial and error
algorithm
deductive (top down) reasoning
inductive (bottom up reasoning)
trial and error
problem solving method
less sophisticated, various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work.
More effective when only few possible solutions.
algorithm
problem solving method
a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem
Mathematical or set of instructions designed to produce the solution
deductive (top down) reasoning
problem solving method
starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given.
inductive (bottom up) reasoning
problem solving method
seeks to create a theory via generalizations.
Starts with specific instances and then draws conclusions.
inductive (bottom up) reasoning
problem solving method
seeks to create a theory via generalizations.
Starts with specific instances and then draws conclusions.
heuristic
“rules of thumb”
simplified principles used to make decisions
availability heuristic
: used when we try to decide how likely something is.
• Make our decision based on how easily similar circumstances can be imagined.
• Ex: K as first letter in word or 3rd letter in word
representativeness heuristic
involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category.
• Base rate fallacy: using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
judge probability of an event under uncertainty
compare info to our mental prototypes: is this guy a librarian, well how well does he fit.
base rate fallacy
representativeness heuristic
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
using specific events and ignoring actual stats.
disconfirmation principle
Biases and overconfidence
when the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work. This potential solution should be yossed.
confirmation bias
Biases and overconfidence
the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them.
- Leads to overconfidence: a tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible.
- Belief perseverance: the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.
overconfidence
Biases and overconfidence
a tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible.
belief perseverance
Biases and overconfidence
the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.
intuition
the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence.
A person ‘feels’ something.
Recognition-primed decision model: brain is sorting through a wide variety of information to match a patter.
• Ex; doctor and seeing a heart attack.
recognition-primed decision model
intuition
brain is sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern.
• Ex: doctor and seeing a heart attack.
decision-making model in which experience and recognition of similar situations one has already experienced play a large role in decision-making and actions; also one of the explanations for experience of intuition
emotion
the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation.
Emotions during the decision effect the decision, also the thought of particular emotions that will be the result of a decision effect the decision.
intellectual functioning
what makes someone more intelligent than someone else?
o Multiple intelligences: defined the types of intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
Western culture values the first 2 (IQ test based off of these)
o Variations in intellectual ability
Intelligence quotient (IQ): underlying variable of intelligence measured with standardized tests.
• Stanford-Binet IQ Test: IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
• Many different IQ tests around the world.
o Variability in IQ scores can be attributed to many determinants, including genes, environment, and educational experiences.
o IQ can be affected by intervening at a young age.
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
defined the types of intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
Western culture values the first 2 (IQ test based off of these)
o Variations in intellectual ability
intelligence quotient
underlying variable of intelligence measured with standardized tests.
- Stanford-Binet IQ Test: IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
- Many different IQ tests around the world.
Stanford Binet IQ test
(mental age/chronological age) x 100
consciousness
one’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within the world.
what are the states of consciousness
alertness, sleep dreaming, altered states of consciousness.
alertness
state of consciousness
: a state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think.
Perceive, process, access, and verbalize info
Cortisol levels are higher and EEG can tell
Maintained by circuits in the prefrontal cortex, with fibers communicating with the reticular formation (brainstem) to keep the cortex awake and alert
sleep
state of consciousness
a condition of body and mind such as that which typically recurs for several hours every night, in which the nervous system is relatively inactive, the eyes closed, the postural muscles relaxed, and consciousness practically suspended.
how is sleep measured
brainwave activity via electroencephalography (EEG)
EEG
electroencephalography: records en average of electrical patterns within different portions of the brain
sleep cycle lasts _____ minutes
90
what are the waves expressed in EEG through the different sleep stages
awake: beta eyes closed but awake: alpha Stage 1: theta waves Stage 2: theta waves with sleep spindles and K complexes Stage 3 and Stage 4: delta
beta waves
have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration.
alpha waves
occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, somewhat slower than beta waves and more synchronized.
Mnemonic for waves during sleep
BAT-D
Bat sleeps during the day
theta waves
as soon as you doze off, EEG is characterized by irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages.
stage 1 sleep
as soon as you doze off, EEG is characterized by irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages.
stage 2 sleep
more deep sleep, theta waves, sleep spindles and K complexes
stage 3 and 4
slow wave sleep (SWS), delta waves
fall even deeper asleep, low frequency and high voltage EEG very hard to wake from cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, and increased growth hormone release.
slow wave sleep
stage 3 and 4 delta waves
fall even deeper asleep, low frequency and high voltage EEG very hard to wake from cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, and increased growth hormone release.
delta waves
SWS, stage 3 and 4
fall even deeper asleep, low frequency and high voltage EEG very hard to wake from cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, and increased growth hormone release.
non-rapid eye-movement sleep
NREM sleep: stages 1-4
rapid eye-movement sleep
REM: interspersed between cycles of NREM sleep stages
- As aroused as wakefulness but muscles are paralyzed.
- Paradoxical sleep: one’s heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is still asleep.
- Dreaming and memory consolidation.
paradoxical sleep
REM
one’s heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is still asleep.
sleep cycle
a single complete progression through the sleep stages
• Early in the night dominated by SWS and then later on in the night it is REM
• Affects to sleep cycle can be determinantal
• Adults spend longer time in REM sleep and have a longer sleep cycle.
circadian rhythms
control our daily cycle of waking and sleeping (generated internally)
• Approximately 24 hours. Controlled by:
o Light Melatonin: a serotonin-derived hormone from the pineal gland
Retina hypothalamus (controls pineal gland)
o Cortisol: steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex (wakefulness)
Light release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from hypothalamus release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary cortisol release
melatonin
a serotonin-derived hormone from the pineal gland
Retina hypothalamus (controls pineal gland)
released during light
cortisol
steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex (wakefulness)
Light release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from hypothalamus release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary cortisol release
when does most dreaming occur?
REM sleep
activation-synthesis theory
dreaming
dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry
o can come from sensory info, desires, stored memories bizarre dreams
problem-solving dream theory
dreaming
dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping.
o Real world rules do not apply so you do not have the tethering of the real world.
cognitive process dream theory
dreaming
dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness.
o Thinking about one thing and then your consciousness shifts.
neurocognitive models of dreaming
dreaming
seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes.
what are the altered states of consciousness
hypnosis
meditation
drug induced
hypnosis
a state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions, but is in a highly suggestible state other people have control
• Starts with hypnotic induction: the hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration.
• Then the hypnotist can suggest things to the person
hypnotic induction
the hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration.
• Then the hypnotist can suggest things to the person
what are the 4 different groups of consciousness-altering drugs
depressants, stimulants, opioids and opiates, hallucinogens
depressants
reduce NS activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety.
alcohol, barbiturates and benzodiazepines
meditation
involves quieting of the mind for a purpose, spiritual, religious, or stress reduction.
• Resembles stage 1 sleep on EEG, slowed heart rate.
alcohol
Increases activity of the GABA receptor, a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane generalized brain inhibition and diminished arousal.
Increases dopamine: mild euphoria.
Higher doses: motor functioning and logical reasoning decline
• Alcohol myopia: the inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world
Alcoholism can be passed on to children, more prominent in low SES households, and can lead to many other diseases including Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
barbiturates and benzodiapines
Barbiturates were originally used as anxiety reducing (anxiolytic) and sleep medications, but have been replaced with benzodiazepines which are less prone to overdose.
Increase GABA, causing sense of relaxation.
Highly addictive.
alcohol myopia
the inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world
stimulants
cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system (increase action potentials)
amphetamines
cocaine
ecstasy
amphetamines
: cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake.
Increase arousal, heart rate, and blood pressure, euphoria, anxiety, on edge, paranoid decrease appetite and need for sleep.
Withdrawal is very bad.
cocaine
decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin.
Similar effects as amphetamines
Used in surgeries due to vasoconstrictive properties
Crack: smokable form of cocaine.
ecstasy
(3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, MDMA): hallucinogen + amphetamine
Similar to other amphetamines.
Overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness.
crack cocaine
smokable form
opiates and opioids
o Opium: derived from the poppy plant
o Opiates: naturally occurring form. Ex: morphine and codeine.
o Opioids: semisynthetic derivatives. Ex: oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroine.
o Bind to opioid receptors in the PNS and CNS and decrease reaction to pain and euphoria.
o Can cause death as they suppress brain signals to breath.
o Heroin: once used as a substituted for morphine. Rapid metabolism to morphine in the body.
opium
derived from poppy plant
opiates
naturally occurring form. Ex: morphine and codeine.
opioids
semisynthetic derivatives. Ex: oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroine.
heroin
once used as a substituted for morphine. Rapid metabolism to morphine in the body.
hallucinogens
: use distortions of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection.
o Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
o Increased heart rate and blood pressure.
marijuana
effects that are seen in many of the drugs types
refers to the leaves of two plant species.
o Active chemical is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): acts at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors.
o Inhibits GABA activity, increases dopamine activity (pleasure)
o Has a lot of different effects that are seen by many of the drugs types.
________ leads to drug addiction
mesolimbic reward pathway
mesolimbic reward pathway
Normally involved in motivation and emotional response.
Involves the nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the connection between them the medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
Dopamine is the neurotransmitter involved.
dyssomnias
disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep and include insomnia, narcolepsy and sleep apnea.
insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea
insomnia
difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
narcolepsy
lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep. Symptoms:
• Cataplexy: a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by emotional trigger.
• Sleep paralysis: sensation of being unable to move despite being awake.
• Hypnagogic (before sleep) and hypnopompic (waking up) hallucinations: hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening.
cataplexy
a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by emotional trigger.
sleep paralysis
sensation of being unable to move despite being awake.
Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
before sleep, waking up hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening.
parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep, and include night terrors and sleepwalking.
night terrors, sleepwalking
night terrors
periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
• Children mostly, will thrash about and show sympathetic overdrive. SWS (stages 3-4).
sleepwalking
somnambulism
eat, talk, sex, drive great distances.
sleep deprivation
can result from one night without sleep.
REM rebound: follows sleep deprivation in which there is an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal
REM rebound
follows sleep deprivation in which there is an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal
attention
concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, or sensorium
selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli.
o Acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems.
o Cocktail party phenomenon: goes against the all or nothing interpretation.
Engaged in a convo with a friend but then your ears perk when you hear your name mentioned across the room.
Still process other info just don’t really pay attention to it.
cocktail party phenomenon
goes against the all or nothing interpretation (only focused on stimuli are perceived).
Engaged in a convo with a friend but then your ears perk when you hear your name mentioned across the room.
Still process other info just don’t really pay attention to it.
divided attention
the ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time.
o Controlled (effortful) processing: used for most new or complex tasks
o Automatic processing: familiar or routine actions allows brain to focus on other tasks.
Does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change.
controlled (effortful) processing
used for most new or complex tasks
automatic processing
familiar or routine actions allows brain to focus on other tasks.
Does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change.
Ex: good at driving, but now get distracted because you are focused on other things.
language is _____ for communication
fundamental
language
: the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way.
5 basic components of langauge
o 1. Phonology: the actual sound of language
Phonemes: speech sounds
Categorical perception: make distinction between subtle differences in speech sounds (such as pronunciation)
• Auditory example of constancy
o 2. Morphology: the structure of words
Morphemes: building blocks of words
• Ex: redesigned can be broken up into 3 morphemes
o 3. Semantics: the association of meaning with a word
Words can mean different things, groups to objects.
o 4. Syntax: how the words are put together to form sentences
Change up the order of words, get a new situation
o 5. Pragmatics: the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge
Talk differently depending on the audience (stranger versus friend)
Prosody: the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
phonology
language he actual sound of language Phonemes: speech sounds Categorical perception: make distinction between subtle differences in speech sounds (such as pronunciation) • Auditory example of constancy
morphology
language
Morphology: the structure of words
Morphemes: building blocks of words
• Ex: redesigned can be broken up into 3 morphemes
semantics
language
the association of meaning with a word
Words can mean different things, groups to objects.
syntax
how the words are put together to form sentences
Change up the order of words, get a new situation
pragmatics
the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge
Talk differently depending on the audience (stranger versus friend)
Prosody: the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
phonemes
speech sounds
categorical perception
make distinction between subtle differences in speech sounds (such as pronunciation or when changing the meaning of the word)
• Auditory example of constancy
morphemes
building blocks of words
prosody
the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
babbling
precursor to language, all children do it including deaf children
language development timeline
(generally the same for all children with normal development)
9-12 months: babbling
12-18 months: about one word per month, inflection is important
• Apple? Many contexts
18-20 months: explosion of language and combining words
• That apple or eat apple
2-3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more)
• Errors of growth: a child applies a grammatical rule (morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply
5 years: language rules largely mastered
errors of growth
language development
a child applies a grammatical rule (morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply
Nativist (biological) theory
theory of acquisition of language
innate capacity for language
• Transformational grammar: change up word order but get the same meaning.
o Easy for children at a young age must be innate
• Language acquisition device (LAD): a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules.
• Critical period: important period between 2 years and puberty where if no language is developed later training is largely ineffective.
• Sensitive period: a time when environmental input has maximal effects on the development of an ability
learning (behaviorist) theory
theory of acquisition of language
Explain language acquisition by operant conditioning
• Language acquisition by reinforcement by parents
• Babies can distinguish between phoneme of many different language but by 6 months they show strong preference for language used by parents.
social interactionist theory
theory of acquisition of language
focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes.
• Language acquisition is driven by the child’s desire to communicate and behave in a social manner (interact with caretakers and other children).
• as the biological foundation for language develops and children are exposed to language, some brain circuits are reinforced or atrophied.
nativist theory: transformatonnal grammar
change up word order but get the same meaning.
o Easy for children at a young age must be innate
nativist theory: language acquisition device
a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules.
nativist theory: critical period
important period between 2 years and puberty where if no language is developed later training is largely ineffective.
nativist theory: sensitive period
a time when environmental input has maximal effects on the development of an ability
Whorfian hypothesis (linguistic relativity hypothesis)
suggests that our perception of reality, the way we think about the world, is determined by the content of language.
o Language effects the way we think.
o Ex: Inuits have many descriptions of snow while English has very view
o Word choice, inflection, context, and speaker all play a role in the perception of a message.
Broca’s area
inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex
wernicke’s area
located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe, language comprehension.
arcuate fasciculus
bundle of axons that allows association between language comprehension and speech production (connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s)
aphasia
deficit of language production or comprehension.
Broca’s (expressive) aphasia
damage to Broca’s area: speech comprehension is intact but cannot produce speech
Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia
motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. say jibberish that makes no sense to people around them (but makes sense to them)
conduction aphasia
arcuate fasciculus is affected.
spontaneous speech production is still intact. Cannot repeat words that are said to you.
how are human brains like computers?
like computers, our brains must take in information, encode it in a language we know, store it, and be able to retrieve it if needed
brain is more than a computer though in that it stores more than just fact. It handles emotions, sensations, and memories.
situational modification
one of the 4 pillars of the information processing model
decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
assimilation vs. accomodation
scheme adaptation
assimilation: classify new info into existing schemata
accommodation: existing scheme are modofied to encompass the new information.
what is abstract thinking
real concepts but they are not tied to anything directly/physically concrete.
give an example of conservation in terms of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
one glass of water poured into thinner glass and now looks like there is more: is there more or are they still the same volume of water?
internalization
involves the integration of attitudes, values, standards and the opinions of others into one’s own identity or sense of self.
does fluid intelligence or crystallized intelligence decline with age?
both
dementia
often begins with impaired memory, but later progresses to impaired judgement and confusion. Personality changes are also common as dementia progresses. The most common cause of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease
What is the most common cause of dementia?
Alzheimer’s disease
how do emotions effect decision making?
emotions while making the decision can effect the decision. Also, the thought of future emotions and how the decision will make the future self feel is taken into account.
linguistic-verbal intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and reading
logical-mathematical intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.
musical intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance
visual-spatial intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
good at visualizing things. These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity
interpersonal intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them.
intrapersonal intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.
Naturalistic intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory (new)
Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments.
which of Gardner’s intelligences is most valued by the Western World?
linguistic ability and logical-mathematical ability
Spearman’s g factor
based on the observation that performance on different cognitive tasks is in many cases positively correlated, indicating an underlying factor or variable is playing a role.
this underlying variable is often measured with standardized tests that generate an intelligence quotient (IQ) for the test taker.
how long is the sleep cycle?
90 minutes
during what part of the sleep cycle do we have the most dreams?
REM
compare alpha and beta EEG waves
both observed when we are awake but alpha waves are more synchronized and occur when we are relaxed with our eyes closed. Alpha waves have a lower frequency than beta waves.
delta sleep waves have ____ frequency and ____ voltage
low
high
what are the physiological benefits of SWS
cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, and increased growth hormone release.
early in the night, ____ dominates, while later in the night, _____ sleep dominates
SWS
REM
compare melatonin and cortisol
melatonin mellows you out (sleep) while cortisol wakes you up (sol==> sun)
what is Freud’s take on dreaming?
Separates dreams into manifest content (what one actually sees and hears) and their latent content (the underlying significance of these dream elements).
what are the symptoms of narcolepsy?
cataplexy, sleepy paralysis, hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
sleep walking and night terrors occur during ____ sleep so the individuals have very little recollection of the events.
slow wave sleep (sleep stages 3 and 4)
what types of treatment is hypnosis used for?
pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, smoking cessation
On EEG, meditation resembles sleep stage ____
1
is sleep apnea a parasomnia or dysomnia?
dysomnia because it disturbs sleep timing
parasomnias are when the individual is actually asleep
How does the GABA receptor work?
it is a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization
how does SES effect alcoholism
alcoholism rates tend to be higher for those of lower socioeconomic status
long term consequences of alcoholism include ____
cirrhosis, liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastrointestinal cancer, and Wernick-Korsakoff syndrome
how do stimulants cause an increase in arousal?
they increase the frequency of action potentials
what are the major neurotransmitters at play for stimulant drugs?
epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
_____ has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties
cocaine
what is crack
a type of cocaine that can be smoked
what is another name for ecstasy?
MDMA
3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine
what is the name of a long-acting opioid that is less conducive to overdose?
methadone
what does the abbreviation LSD stand for?
lysergic acid diethylamide
what is the active chemical ingredient in marijuana?
THC
what is the mesolimbic reward pathway’s primary neurotransmitter?
dopamine
what are the 3 important brain areas involved in the mesolimbic reward pathway?
nucleus acumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the medial forebrain bundle.
another word for the sensory environment
the sensorium
is selective attention an all or nothing process?
No. it allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background
what is a major negative aspect to automatic processing/
it does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change.
what is the role of the filter in selective attention?
allows us to focus on one set of stimuli while scanning other stimuli in the background for important info
what is transformational grammar?
synactic transformations, changing words without changing the meaning of a phrase: I took the MCAT, the MCAT was taken by me.
what is one common complaint of the learning (behaviorist) theory?
it does not account for the burst of language that occurs from 18-20 months old. if it is based on reinforcing words then how would this happen so quickly.
what is the name of the brain structure that connects Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area?
arcuate fasciculus
what type of memories are consolidated during dreaming in REM vs. NREM sleep?
REM: procedural memories
NREM: declarative memories
what is the pattern of sleep?
1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or 1-2-3-4-REM (later at night)
circadian rhythms trend around a ____ day
24 hour
which of the 3 drug groups is marijuana classified under?
it can be classified, as a stimulant, depressant and hallucinogen
can sleep occur in stage 1 sleep?
yes, but rarely.
