MCAT Psych #5 Flashcards
motivation
the purpose, or driving force, behind our actions.
Can be directed toward minimizing pain, maximizing pleasure, or rooted in a physical need such as eating.
compare intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation: external forces coming from outside oneself. Can include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved.
• Working hard for your boss at work.
Intrinsic motivation: motivation that comes from within yourself. This can be driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment.
• Ex: a student is interested in the work so he studies it, compared to extrinsic grades.
Ex: children were allowed to draw and then were told about getting a gold start or not.
• Not told: just drew for fun intrinsic
• Told: spent less time drawing extrinsic
intrinsic motivation
motivation that comes from within yourself. This can be driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment. You do something because it brings you joy.
• Ex: a student is interested in the work so he studies it, compared to extrinsic grades.
extrinsic motivation
external forces coming from outside oneself. Can include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved.
• Working hard for your boss at work.
What are the primary views of motivation
instinct theory
arousal theory
drive reduction theory
need-based theories (maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self-determination theory)
incentive theory
expectance value theory
instinct theory
early attempts to understand the basis of motivation.
Instincts: innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli. (can be consistent through life or disappear)
• Ex: wolves follow the leader of their pack or defend their territory
• Ex: children suck on their thumbs
Theory: people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts.
• Some people believed that these instincts motivated people to do things.
• Others believed they could be overridden by experience.
insticts
innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli. (can be consistent through life or disappear)
• Ex: wolves follow the leader of their pack or defend their territory
• Ex: children suck on their thumbs
arousal theory
people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to either increase or decrease arousal so that it hits their optimal level.
Arousal: the psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimulus
Yerkes-Dodson law: postulates a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance.
• Performance is best at an optimal arousal level and it is worst at extremely high or low levels of arousal.
• Different levels of arousal are more beneficial for certain tasks.
arousal
the psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimulus
Yerkes Dodson law
postulates a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance.
• Performance is best at an optimal arousal level and it is worst at extremely high or low levels of arousal.
• Different levels of arousal are more beneficial for certain tasks (a task you are good at you will do very well with maximum arousal)
cognition vs behavior
Cognitive: subjective interpretation of an emotion
Behavior: facial expressions and body language
left frontal lobe is associated with _______ feelings
positive
right frontal lobe is associated with ________ feelings
negative
primary appraisal
determine if there is a stressor at all
avoiding a stressor is considered a _______ response to the stressor
maladaptive
drive reduction theory
explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable state.
Drives: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals.
Drives are thought to originate within an individual without external factors.
Help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve the internal tension created by the unmet needs.
• Primary drives: include the need for food, water, and warmth, motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis.
o Homeostasis: the regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions.
Controlled by negative feedback loops.
• Ex: thermostat
• Ex: hormones in the body. Many hormones are regulated by three-organ axes.
• Secondary Drives: additional drives that are not directly related to biological processes and are thought to stem from learning.
drives
internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals.
Drives are thought to originate within an individual without external factors.
Help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve the internal tension created by the unmet needs.
primary and secondary drives
primary drives
include the need for food, water, and warmth, motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis.
o Homeostasis: the regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions.
Controlled by negative feedback loops.
• Ex: thermostat
• Ex: hormones in the body. Many hormones are regulated by three-organ axes.
motivate us to sustain necessary biological processes
secondary drives
additional drives that are not directly related to biological processes and are thought to stem from learning.
nonbioloigical, emotional, or ‘learned’ desires
need based theories
Needs: motivators that influence human behavior.
• Motivation is how we allocate our energy and resources to best satisfy these needs. Motivation thus determines which behaviors are most important to pursue, how much effort will be taken, and for how long the effort will be maintained.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: certain needs will yield a greater influence on our motivation
• Levels: physiological (highest priority, food), safety (body, employment), love/belonging (friendship, family), esteem (confidence), self-actualization (morality, creativity)
• If the lowest level of need is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority.
Self-determination theory (SDT): SDT emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy, the need to be in control of one’s actions and ideas; competence, the need to complete and excel at different tasks; and relatedness, the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships.
• Must meet these needs to develop healthy relationships with oneself and others.
needs
: motivators that influence human behavior.
• Motivation is how we allocate our energy and resources to best satisfy these needs.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
certain needs will yield a greater influence on our motivation
• Levels: physiological (highest priority, food), safety (body, employment), love/belonging (friendship, family), esteem (confidence), self-actualization (morality, creativity)
• If the lowest level of need is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority.
self determination theory
SDT emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy, the need to be in control of one’s actions and ideas; competence, the need to complete and excel at different tasks; and relatedness, the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships.
• Must meet these needs to develop healthy relationships with oneself and others.
autonomy
competence
relatedness
incentive theory
explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments.
expectance-value theory
states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual’s expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal.
opponent-process theory
when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing physiology. Long after the drug is gone, the physiological changes persist withdrawal.
Tolerance: a decrease in perceived drug effect over time.
sexual motivation
o Studies done to determine if sociocultural backgrounds determine what behaviors people are participating in, how often, and when they start.
o Men and women experience similar physiological responses.
o Humans are motivated to sexual behavior by hormones.
o Cognition, culture and society influence also play a role.
emotion
a natural instinctive state of mind derived from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationship with others.
what are the three elements of emotion
physiological response
behavioral response
cognitive response
physiological response
when a feeling is experienced, arousal is stimulated by the autonomic NS.
Changes in heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, etc.
May be hard to detect in everyday life.
behavioral response
facial expressions and body language
There are certain signals that are recognized as happy or sad
cognitive response
subjective interpretation of the feeling being expressed.
Determination of one’s emotion is based on past experiences and perception of the cause of the emotion.
what are the universal emotions according to MCAT
(7) fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness
darwin and emotions
o Darwin argued that all humans evolved the same set of facial muscles to show the same expressions when communicating emotion, regardless of society and culture.
Cultural dissimilarities in emotional experience include varying reactions to similar events, differences in the emotional experience itself, the behavior exhibited in response to an emotion, and the perception of that emotion by others within the society.
What are the theories of emotion
Originally believed that first came perception of emotion, then physiological response, then behavioral response.
James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory
Schachter-Singer Theory
James-Lange Theory
nervous system arousal ==> conscious emotion
a stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labelled.
Predicts that individuals who cannot mount a sympathetic response, like patients with spinal cord injuries, would feel less emotion” false.
Cannon-Bard Theory
NS arousal + conscious emotion ==> action
the cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioral component of emotion
Does not explain the vagus nerve which is a cranial nerve that functions as a feedback system, conveying information from the peripheral organs back to the CNS.
James-Lange Theory
nervous system arousal ==> conscious emotion
a stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labelled.
“I must be angry because my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high”
Predicts that individuals who cannot mount a sympathetic response, like patients with spinal cord injuries, would feel less emotion” false.
Cannon-Bard Theory
NS arousal + conscious emotion ==> action
the cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioral component of emotion
Does not explain the vagus nerve which is a cranial nerve that functions as a feedback system, conveying information from the peripheral organs back to the CNS.
“I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing… let me out of here.”
Schachter-Singer Theory
NS arousal + cognitive appraisal ==> conscious emotion
both arousal and labelling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced
“I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy”
Element of cognitive appraisal: to feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze the environment in relation to nervous system arousal.
Experiment: a subject experiencing physiological arousal with no explanation or with misleading explanation will attribute the arousal to the surrounding environment, and label herself as happy or angry based on the behavior of the actor.
• Environment that encourages emotion + arousal = created emotion
what is the most important part of the brain for emotion
limbic system
o It is a complex set of structures that reside below the cerebrum on either side of the thalamus.
o Consists of the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and fornix, septal nuclei, and parts of the cerebral cortex.
what are the components of the limbic system
Consists of the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and fornix, septal nuclei, and parts of the cerebral cortex.
amygdala
small round structure that signals the cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions. Processes environment to produce emotion. Plays a role in fear. Interpretation of facial expressions.
explicit vs. implicit memory
The explicit memory is the story of the event: what happened, where, who, the fact that it was traumatic. It is remembering that you were happy at a specific time. Memory about emotions rather than stored emotions.
==> hippocampus
Implicit: storage of the actual feelings of emotions associated with an event. Sensations of unease and anxiety when put back into a similar environment.
==> amygdala
thalamus and emotion
preliminary sensory processing station and routes info to the cortex and other parts of the brain.
hypothalamus and emotion
located below the thalamus, dictates emotional states by modulating emotion through specific neurotransmitter release.
hippocampus and emotion
located within the temporal lobe, is important for creating long term memories. Storage and retrieval of emotional memories.
Explicit memory: the memory of experiencing actual emotion.
prefrontal cortex and emotion
the anterior portion of the frontal lobes and is associated with planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, and making decisions.
Receives arousal input from the brainstem, coordinating arousal and cognitive state.
Dorsal prefrontal cortex: attention and cognition
Ventral prefrontal cortex: connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion.
• Ventromedial prefrontal cortex: substantial role in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala.
dorsal prefrontal cortex and emotion
attention and cognition
ventral prefrontal cortex and emotion
connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion.
• Ventromedial prefrontal cortex: substantial role in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala.
ventromedial preforntal cortex and emotion
substantial role in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala.
autonomic nervous system and emotion
specific physiologic reactions are associated with specific emotion.
Skin temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure are all affected when experiencing emotion.
All of these can be more or less associated with a particular emotion.
stress
Defined as our response to challenging events: be they physical, emotional, cognitive, or behavioral.
Cognitive Appraisal of Stress
the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.
o Primary Appraisal: the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat.
Can be identified as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful.
o Secondary Appraisal: if primary appraisal reveals a threat. Directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress.
Evaluates 3 things:
• Harm, or damage caused by the event
• Threat, or potential for future damage caused by the event
• Challenge, or the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event
o Some situations require ongoing monitoring through constant reappraisal.
Primary Appraisal
Cognitive Appraisal of Stress
the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat.
Can be identified as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful.
secondary appraisal
Cognitive Appraisal of stress
if primary appraisal reveals a threat, this step is directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress.
Evaluates 3 things:
• Harm, or damage caused by the event
• Threat, or potential for future damage caused by the event
• Challenge, or the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event
reappraisal
cognitive appraisal of stress
Some situations require ongoing monitoring through constant reappraisal. Ex: being followed
stressor
a biological element, external condition, or event that leads to a stress response.
Examples of stressors
Includes environmental factors (too hot), daily events (being late), workplace or academic settings (assignment), social expectations (behavior around family), chemical and biological stressors (diet, alcohol)
eustress
result of positive conditions. While it is positive, person must adapt.
• Life events such as graduating college,
distress
occurs when experiencing an unpleasant stressor
social readjustment rating scale
measures stress in life change units.
psychological stress
pressure, control, frustration (obtaining a goal is prevented), conflict, predictability (lower predictability increases stress).
Conflict: the need to make a choice increases stress
• Approach-approach (two desirable options)
• Avoidance-avoidance (two negative options)
• Approach-avoidance: one choice but the result can be positive or negative.
approach-approach conflict stress
psychological stress making a choice
2 desirable options
avoidance avoidance conflict stress
psychological stress making a choice
2 negative options
approach-avoidance conflict stress
one choice but the result can have both positive or negative elements. Ex: job promotion comes with more money but more work.
general adaptation syndrome
the sequence of physiological responses
• 1. Alarm: the initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic NS
o Lots of hypothalamus stimulation of things.
• 2. Resistance: the continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic NS to remain engaged to fight the stressor.
• 3. Exhaustion: the body can no longer maintain an elevated response with the sympathetic NS activity. Individuals become more susceptible to illness and medical conditions.
what is the sequence of physiological responses to stress according to the general adaptation syndrome
alarm, resistance, exhaustion
emotional and behavioral responses to stress
Sustained stress can take a psychological toll.
Can affect mood: irritability, moody, helpless.
Behavior: aggression, withdrawing from others.
coping and stress management
Problem-focused strategies: working to overcome a stressor, such as reaching out to family and friends for social support and confronting the issue head on.
Emotionally focused strategies: center on changing one’s feelings about a stressor, such as taking responsibility for the issue and engaging in self-control.
Can also do stress management: exercise.
problem focused strategies dealing with stress
working to overcome a stressor, such as reaching out to family and friends for social support and confronting the issue head on.
emotionally focused strategies dealing with stress
: center on changing one’s feelings about a stressor, such as taking responsibility for the issue and engaging in self-control.
emotionally focused strategies dealing with stress
center on changing one’s feelings about a stressor, such as taking responsibility for the issue and engaging in self-control.
what types of tasks require high arousal for optimum performance (Yerkes-Dodson)?
activities that require physical endurance and stamina, simple tasks
what types of tasks require low arousal for optimum performance (Yerkes-Dodson)?
cognitive tasks
homeostasis
the regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions
homeostasis is usually controlled by _____
negative feedback loops. Ex: leptin and ghrelin with hunger
primary drives are those that motivate us to ______. Secondary drives are those that motivate us to fulfill _____.
sustain necessary biological processes
nonbiological, emotional, or learned behaviors.
compare the types of arousal that lead to highest performance of the following categories: cognitive, physical performance, simple task, complex ask
cognitive: low arousal necessary
physical performance: high arousal necessary
simple task: high level necessary
complex task: low level necessary
what are secondary drives in the drive reduction theory thought to stem from?
learning
drive reduction theory is also thought to tie into learning in ______ situations
behavioral conditioning
individuals are trying to alleviate their internal feeling by doing the behavior.
what are the 3 needs of self determination theory?
autonomy
competence
relatedness
what are the different levels of maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
self actualization esteem love/belonging safety physiological
what are the 4 primary factors that influence motivation?
needs, arousal, instincts, drives
what is the theory of motivation that explains continuous drug use?
opponent process theory
how is drug use affected by cultural and demographic factors?
if the drugs are used in the setting you live in then you are more likely to use as well.
opponent-process theory also explains ____ to a drug
tolerance
the symptoms of withdrawal are oftentimes the ______ effects of taking the drug
opposite
this is because the body has made physiological changes to deal with the drug but now the drug is no longer presented so the body kind of overcompensates ==> withdrawal.
With regards to sexual motivation, there is a strong correlation between ____ and sexual desire
hormone concentration
does culture have an effect on sexual behavior?
yes, they influence the desire for sexual interaction or lack of it through what is deemed normative or appropriate.
what motivates humans sexuall?
social and cultural factors, physiological responses to situations.
compare drives and needs
drives: internal states of tension or discomfort
needs: factors necessary for physiological functioning or emotional fulfillment.
which needs have the highest priority in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
physiological needs (bottom of the pyramid) must satisfy these needs first.
apathetic
showing or feeling no interest, enthusiasm, or concern.
what is Darwin’s opinion on emotions?
made the argument that emotions are a result of evolution and thus emotions and their corresponding expressions are universal.
discuss emotions and culture
it is argued that emotions can vary by culture: different emotional experiences to certain things or reactions.
before any of the 3 theories of emotion, what did early psychologists believe?
they believed that: stimulus => perception of negative stimulus => physiological arousal => behavior
why was the james-lange theory incorrect?
by extension, it stated that in order to have an emotion there must be feedback from the peripheral NS. However, in spinal cord injury patients, they still expressed emotion, so this pathway could not be the case.
what is a quote from all 3 theories of emotion that is helpful for learning?
- James-Lange: “I must be angry because my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high”
- Cannon-Bard: “I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing.. let me out of here”
- Shacter-Singer: “I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy”
why is the cannon-bard theory criticized?
it fails to take into account he vagus cranial nerve that functions as a feedback system, conveying info from the peripheral organs back to the CNS.
what are other names for the Schacter-Singer theory of emotion?
cognitive arousal theory
two-factor theory
explain the Schachter-Singer Experiment
gave people epinephrine or placebo
told them or did not tell them about the drug and manipulated external cues
the misinformed and ignorant groups showed the greatest emotion because they attributed their physiological arousal to the surrounding environment.
lazarus theory of emotion
lazarus labels first
labelling cognition (cognitive appraisal) ==> physiological response + conscious emotion
what are the components of the limbic system?
amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei, parts of the cerebral cortex
what brain structures control implicit and explicit memory?
explicit: hippocampus
implicit: amygdala
Explain implicit and explicit memory of emotions in terms of PTSD
explicit: the memory of the store of the event: who was there what happened and where it occurred
implicit: the sensations of unease and anxiety when put back in a similar environment
compare retrieval of emotional memories for explicit and implicit memory?
explicit: conscious memory of the emotional event
implicit: expression of emotional responses.
which hemisphere of the brain is more active when discerning facial expression?
the right
compare negative and positive emotions to the prefrontal cortex that is responsible for them
right: negative
left: positive
the dorsal prefrontal cortex is associated with _______ while the ventral prefrontal cortex connects with regions of the brain responsible for _____
attention and cognition
emotion
what is the role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex?
play a substantial role in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala
In the cognitive appraisal model of stress, what leads from primary appraisal to secondary appraisal?
If primary appraisal reveals a threat, secondary appraisal begins
What is benign-positive appraisal of the environment?
A benign-positive appraisal refers to an instance where one’s appraisal of an event leads to positive beliefs. These positive beliefs actually enhance positive feelings and/or functioning.
In the cognitive appraisal theory of stress, individuals who perceive themselves as having the ability to cope with the event experience ____
less stress
what is an example of a chemical or biological stressor?
diet, alcohol
can a positive stressor lead to stress?
yes, any event requiring a person to change or adapt his or lifestyle leads to stress
give an example of a psychological stressor
unable to control one’s environment, pressure placed by society to behave a certain way
describe the alarm step of the general adaptation syndrome
initial response, activation of the sympathetic NS, epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla and cortisol from the adrenal cortex
describe the resistance step of the general adaptation syndrome
continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic NS to remain engaged to fight the stressor
describe the exhaustion step of the general adaptation syndrome
the body can no longer maintain elevated response with the sympathetic NS
at this point, individuals become more susceptible to illnesses and medical conditions.
give an example of a maladaptive strategy of dealing with stress?
turning to drugs or drinking
what are the two strategies for coping with stress
problem-focuses and emotionally focused
compare coping with stress and stress management
coping: this is the stress and I am going to deal with it
management: attempting to reduce it
what are the lowest priority of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
self-actualization
describe opponent process theory as it applies to emotions rather than drugs
According to Richard Solomon, (1974) the opponent process theory is a theory of motivation/emotion that views emotions as pairs of opposites. For example; fear-relief or pleasure-pain. When one is experienced (A), it triggers an opposing emotion after a period of time
The opponent process theory states that the more a person experiences the fear, the less the fear will affect them. This decrease in fear may continue to the point where the situation is no longer scary. If the stimulus (the thing feared) is no longer a fear, then a second emotion (relief) takes over
Darwin is most associated with which theory of motivation?
instinct theory
