MCAT Psych #11 Flashcards
sociology
the study of society: how we create society, how we interact with it, how we define what is normal and abnormal in society, and how we institutionalize these ideas.
macrosociology
focuses on large groups and social structure
microsociology
focuses on small groups and the individual
social structure
a system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships.
functionalism
the study of the structure and function of each part of society
View society as a living organism
Functions
• Function: the beneficial consequences of people’s actions. Functions help keep society in balance.
• Dysfunctions: harmful consequences of people’s actions as they undermine a social system’s equilibrium.
• Manifest Function: if an action is intended to help some part of a system.
• Latent functions: when manifest functions also have unintended positive consequences on other parts of society.
o Ex: meetings are to share information but they actually also create a stronger interpersonal bond between the group.
Sick individuals deviate from the norm of society and are filling a role as the sick individual who cannot benefit the society.
functionalism: function
the beneficial consequences of people’s actions. Functions help keep society in balance.
functionalism: dysfunction
harmful consequences of people’s actions as they undermine a social system’s equilibrium.
functionalism: manifest function
if an action is intended to help some part of a system.
functionalism: latent functions
when manifest functions also have unintended positive consequences on other parts of society.
o Ex: meetings are to share information but they actually also create a stronger interpersonal bond between the group.
conflict theory
based on the works of Karl Marx, focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order.
A formal coalition forming is an example of this: fighting for social power.
Power: a form of influence over other people
Can lead to the dominance of one group if it outcompetes the others.
symbolic interactionism
the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols.
Symbols: things to which we attach meeting
Symbols are the key understanding to how we view the world and communicate with one another.
The symbols do not always match between cultures.
symbolic interactionism: symbols
things to which we attach meeting
social constructionism
focuses on how individuals put together their social reality
Reflects on how we as a society construct concepts and principles.
Social constructs arise from humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle.
Social constructs can be anything: money, how we dress, how a society defines honor and justice, etc.
rational choice theory
focuses on decision making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual.
The individual carefully considers all of the possible rewards and punishments of each social interaction and chooses the option that has the highest benefit-to-harm ratio.
exchange theory
extension of rational choice theory, whereas rational choice theory can be applied to an individual independently of social interactions (what do I want for dinner), this theory focuses on interactions in groups.
Behaviors that are met with approval or disapproval will influence future behaviors.
feminist theory
: attempts to explain social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender.
Focuses on the subordination of women through social structures and institutional discrimination.
• Subordination can be gender roles, sexuality, financial opportunity, and social mobility.
Gender roles: the behaviors expected of a given gender.
Women are more often objectified that man, being seen as a sexual object rather than a person.
Glass ceiling: women have more difficulty getting promoted and attaining top-level administrative positions within a company.
gender roles
the behaviors expected of a given gender.
objectification of women by men
being seen as a sexual object rather than a person.
glass ceiling
women have more difficulty getting promoted and attaining top-level administrative positions within a company.
social institutions
well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships that are accepted as a fundamental part of culture.
What are examples of social institutions
family, education, religion, government and economy, healthcare and medicine
social institutions: family
Influenced by culture, value systems, beliefs, practices, gender, age, race, ethnicity, and others.
Patterns of kinship: change over time, what different family members are referred to as.
• Ex: in Hawaii, all family members are referred to as cousins.
Look at courtship and relationships between individuals and parenting.
Many different types of families.
Violence:
• Domestic violence: spousal abuse that involves physical violence, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and financial abuse.
o #1 cause of injury to American women and usually associated with drug abuse and alcoholism.
• Elder abuse: neglect of an older relative, but can also be physical, psychological, and financial abuse as well.
• Child abuse: neglect, physical, sexual, and psychological abuse.
Physician is a mandated reporter: legally required to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse.
patterns of kinship
change over time, what different family members are referred to as.
• Ex: in Hawaii, all family members are referred to as cousins.
domestic violence
spousal abuse that involves physical violence, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and financial abuse.
o #1 cause of injury to American women and usually associated with drug abuse and alcoholism.
elder abuse
neglect of an older relative, but can also be physical, psychological, and financial abuse as well.
child abuse
neglect, physical, sexual, and psychological abuse.
mandated reporter
legally required to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse.
physician is one
social institutions: education
systems that aim to arm the population with information.
Includes not only the information and cognitive skills students learn but also the hidden curriculum of transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students.
Sociologists look at the type of education and education trends such as inflation and deflation.
Teacher expectancy: the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy where if the teacher believes in the students then they are more likely to do better.
Education is susceptible to inequalities across social classes.
hidden curriculum
transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students.
teacher expectancy
the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy where if the teacher believes in the students then they are more likely to do better.
social institutions: religion
a pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence.
Persists over time and has a structure where members are resocialized.
Religiosity: how religious one considers him or herself to be and includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself.
large umbrella religions (Christianity, Judaism), can be divided into multiple denominations or sects that share certain beliefs and practices but not others.
Church: a large, universal religious group that can be divided into multiple coexisting denominations.
Cult: when a religious sect takes on extreme or deviant philosophies.
Religion is struggling to find a place as religious practices are relaxing.
Secularize: move from a world dominated by religion toward rationality and scientific thinking.
Fundamentalism: maintenance of strict adherence to religious code.
religiosity
how religious one considers him or herself to be and includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself.
large umbrella religions (Christianity, Judaism), can be divided into multiple
denominations or sects
religious groups that share certain beliefs and practices but not others.
cult
when a religious sect takes on extreme or deviant philosophies.
secularize
move from a world dominated by religion toward rationality and scientific thinking.
religion: fundamentalism
maintenance of strict adherence to religious code.
social institutions: government and economy
: systemic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities, and social structures that affect rule making, representation of the individual in society, rights and privileges, division of labor, and production of goods and services.
These impact all other institutions to some extent.
They can influence at the individual level
• Also they are interdependent: if the economy goes down, an individual might decide to vote for a different party or vote against a particular piece of legislation.
Different governments work in different ways:
• Democracy: allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representatives to office (representative democracy).
• Monarchies: include a royal ruler (king or queen), although the ruler’s powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution or parliamentary system.
• Dictatorship: a system where a single person holds power, and usually includes mechanisms to quell threats to this power.
• Theocracy: a system where power is held by religious leaders
Charismatic authority: a leader with a compelling personality.
Comparative economics:
• Capitalist: focus on free market trade and laissez-faire policies, where success or failure in business is primarily driven by consumerism with as little intervention from central governing bodies as possible.
o A private owner or corporation maintains and profits from the success of the business.
o Division of labor: specific components are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals.
• Socialist: treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system.
o Profit is then distributed equally to the workforce.
government and economy are ______
interdependent
economy goes down, might vote for a different political party
democracy
allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representatives to office (representative democracy).
monarchy
include a royal ruler (king or queen), although the ruler’s powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution or parliamentary system.
dictatorship
a system where a single person holds power, and usually includes mechanisms to quell threats to this power.
theocracy
a system where power is held by religious leaders
capitalist economy
focus on free market trade and laissez-faire policies, where success or failure in business is primarily driven by consumerism with as little intervention from central governing bodies as possible.
o A private owner or corporation maintains and profits from the success of the business.
o Division of labor: specific components are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals.
socialist economy
treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system.
o Profit is then distributed equally to the workforce.
charismatic authority
a leader with a compelling personality.
division of labor
specific components are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals.
social institutions: healthcare and medicine
aimed at maintaining or improving the health status of the individual, family, community, and society as a whole.
Goals in American healthcare:
• Increase access
• Decrease costs
• Prevention of disease rather than treatment
o Increased education of the public
• Life course approach to health: maintaining and considering comprehensive view of the patient’s history beyond the immediate presenting symptoms.
Sick role: the person is not responsible for the illness and was exempt from normal social roles.
• Nowadays people are expected to maintain their health through diet, exercise, and seeking help before it is needed.
Some illnesses are no longer considered illnesses: homosexuality
Medicalize: entities that are defined and treated as medical conditions.
Medical ethics:
• 1. Beneficence: the physician has the responsibility to act in the patient’s best interest.
• 2. Nonmaleficence: do no harm; the physician has the responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit.
• 3. Respect for patient autonomy: the physician has a responsibility to respect patients’ decisions and choices about their own healthcare.
o Some exceptions for those deemed incompetent but patients can refuse life saving therapies.
• 4. Justice: the physician has the responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly.
focus on _____ of disease rather than ______
prevention
treatment
life course approach to health
maintaining and considering comprehensive view of the patient’s history beyond the immediate presenting symptoms.
healthcare and medicine: sick role
the person is not responsible for the illness and was exempt from normal social roles.
• Nowadays people are expected to maintain their health through diet, exercise, and seeking help before it is needed.
medicalize
entities that are defined and treated as medical conditions.
Ex: binge eating disorder
what are the four pillars of medical ethics
• 1. Beneficence: the physician has the responsibility to act in the patient’s best interest.
• 2. Nonmaleficence: do no harm; the physician has the responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit.
• 3. Respect for patient autonomy: the physician has a responsibility to respect patients’ decisions and choices about their own healthcare.
o Some exceptions for those deemed incompetent but patients can refuse life saving therapies.
• 4. Justice: the physician has the responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly.
beneficence
the physician has the responsibility to act in the patient’s best interest.
nonmaleficence
do no harm; the physician has the responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit.
respect for patient autonomy
the physician has a responsibility to respect patients’ decisions and choices about their own healthcare.
o Some exceptions for those deemed incompetent but patients can refuse life saving therapies.
justice
the physician has the responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly.
culture
encompassing the entire lifestyle for a given group.
o Binds nation-states, political institutions, marketplaces, religions, and ideologies.
ethnography
the study of cultures and customs
ethnographic methods
experimental methods used to study the ethnicity or culture of a group.
artifacts
material items that they make, possess, and value.
material culture
sociologists explore the meaning of objects of a given society. The artifacts of a culture
o Ex: the physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, emblems, clothing.
o Ex: American flag
o Typically most visible during ceremonies.
symbolic culture
nonmaterial culture, associated with ideas
Focuses on the ides that represent a group of people.
May be encoded in mottos, songs, or catchphrases
Ex: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
These things keep social groups together as they allow them to have a shared sense of identity, loyalty, and belonging.
Included cognitive and behavioral components.
culture lag
symbolic culture is usually slower to change than material culture.
• Ex: cell-phones and social media versus American culture of individuality and privacy.
language
: most highly developed and complex symbol system used by most cultures.
• Spoken, written, or signed symbols.
• Critical to understanding culture, sharing ideas, thoughts, discoveries, and experiences.
values
what a person deems important in life, which dictates one’s ethical principles and standards of behavior.
belief
something that an individual accepts to be truth.
cultural barriers
when a cultural difference impedes interaction with others.
norms
societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior.
Not laws, but govern the behavior of society and provide a sense of social control.
What is appropriate, what we should do and not do.
ritual
a formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior.
Ex: birthday, graduation, Halloween, getting ready in the morning.
Have a prescribed order of events or routine.
evolution both influences and is influenced by culture
o Evolution both influences and is influenced by culture.
o Culture serves as a method for passing down information from generation to generation.
Used to teach future generations.
Loyalty and allegiance.
o Some genetic traits have been favored because of cultural values and beliefs.
Ex: digestion of milk mutation allowed for survival advantage and it was retained in the population due to natural selection
demographics
refer to the statistics of populations and are the mathematical applications of sociology.
o Gathered formally (census) and informally (professor counts the # of freshman in a class).
what are common demographic categories
age, gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, immigration status
demographic: age
Graying of America as the Baby Boomer generation ages.
Fastest growing age cohort is the 85 or older group.
Huge impact on health care
Ageism: prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person’s age.
• Can be seen at all ages:
o Young people’s ideas are ignored in the workplace
o Old people are seen and treated as frail and vulnerable.
demographic: gender
Social construct that corresponds to the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex.
The distinct roles and behaviors of men and women in a given culture, influenced by cultural norms and values.
Gender inequality: the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other.
Gender segregation: separation of individuals based on perceived gender.
demographic: race
social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people.
• May be real or perceived differences.
• Not strictly defined by genetics, but rather classifies individuals based on superficial traits such as skin color.
• Racialization: the definition or establishment of a group as a particular race.
o Ex: Jewish as a religion and now viewed as a race.
• Racial formation theory: posits that racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors. Used to look at race as a socially constructed identity, where the content and importance of racial categories are determined by social, economic, and political forces.
demographic: ethnicity
: social construct which sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors.
• Ex: skin color is black but could be ethnically Latino
• Symbolic ethnicity: describes a specific connection to one’s ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life.
o Ex: Irish Americans celebrate St. Patrick’s day but their ethnicity does not play a role in all other facets of their lives.
demographic: sexual orientation
the direction of one’s sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes.
Generally divided into 3 categories:
• Heterosexual: attraction to individuals of the opposite sex
• Bisexual: attraction to members of both sexes
• Homosexual: attraction to individuals of the same sex
Coming out allows individuals absorb their sexuality in their identity. Shown to have therapeutic effects.
Kinsey scale: scale between homosexual and heterosexual, found to be very fluid (0 is completely heterosexual and 6 is completely homosexual, 3 would be bisexual).
LGBT: lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender: grouping together of sexual and gender minorities.
• Some health issues have disproportionately affected this group:
o HIV/AIDS: greater prevalence in MSM
o Lesbians receive less screening for cervical cancer.
o Mental health disparities.
demographic: immigration status
The Unites States’ total immigrant population is growing rapidly.
Immigrants, both documented and undocumented, are interwoven into society.
Most recently: Mexico, India, and the Caribbean
Barriers that affect interaction: language especially, prevents proper use of health care.
Intersectionality: when interplay between multiple demographic factors leads to discrimination or oppression
• Ex: race and immigration status
ageism
prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person’s age.
• Can be seen at all ages:
o Young people’s ideas are ignored in the workplace
o Old people are seen and treated as frail and vulnerable.
gender inequality
the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other.
gender segregation
the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other.
biological sex
XY or XX
racialization
the definition or establishment of a group as a particular race.
o Ex: Jewish as a religion and now viewed as a race.
racial formation theory
posits that racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors.
symbolic ethnicity
describes a specific connection to one’s ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life.
o Ex: Irish Americans celebrate St. Patrick’s day but their ethnicity does not play a role in all other facets of their lives.
kinsey scale
scale between homosexual and heterosexual, found to be very fluid (0 is completely heterosexual and 6 is completely homosexual, 3 would be bisexual).
LGBT
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender: grouping together of sexual and gender minorities.
• Some health issues have disproportionately affected this group:
o HIV/AIDS: greater prevalence in MSM
o Lesbians receive less screening for cervical cancer.
o Mental health disparities.
intersectionality
when interplay between multiple demographic factors leads to discrimination or oppression
• Ex: race and immigration status
demographic shifts
changes in the makeup of a population over time.
Ex: The population has doubled, average age has increased, and the population is becoming more diverse.
population pyramids
provide a histogram of the population size of various age cohorts. There will be an indent at a certain age if something happened that affected specifically those individuals.
fertility rate
Fertility rate = children per woman per lifetime
refers to the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population.
• 4-8 in Africa
• 2 in the US
birth rate
Birth rate = children or births per 1000 people per year
mortality rate
Mortality rate = deaths per 1000 people per year
refer to the number of deaths in a population per unit time. Usually measured in deaths per 1000 people per year.
• Mortality rate in the US has decreased due to medical advancements.
migration rate
Migration rate = immigration rate – emigration rate
crude rate
the total rate for a population, adjusted to a certain population size over a specific period of time and multiplied by a constant to give a whole number.
immigration
movement into a new geographic space
emigration
movement away from a geographic space
push factors
negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave
pull factors
positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant
demographic transition
a specific example of demographic shift referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system.
Four stages:
• Stage 1: preindustrial society, birth and death rates are both high
• Stage 2: improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation and wages cause death rates to drop.
• Stage 3: improvements in contraception, women’s rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates to drop. Families have fewer children as the children must go to school for longer before they are productive in society.
• Stage 4: an industrialized society, birth and death rates are both low.
demographic transition: stage 1
preindustrial society, birth and death rates are both high
demographic transition: stage 2
improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation and wages cause death rates to drop.
demographic transition: stage 3
improvements in contraception, women’s rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates to drop. Families have fewer children as the children must go to school for longer before they are productive in society.
demographic transition: stage 4
an industrialized society, birth and death rates are both low.
malthusian theory
focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder.
• Malthusian catastrophe is that the population grows at a faster pace than food can be produced and a mass starvation occurs (like bacterial growth).
social movements
Organized either to promote or to resist social change.
Motivated by relative deprivation: a decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society.
Proactive: social movements that promote social change
• Ex: Civil Rights movement, Women’s Rights movement
Reactive: social movements that resist social change
• Ex: white supremacists movement
Members work to correct social injustices.
social movements: relative deprivation
a decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society.
social movements: proactive
: social movements that promote social change
• Ex: Civil Rights movement, Women’s Rights movement
social movements: reactive
social movements that resist social change
• Ex: white supremacists movement
globalization
the process of integrating the global economy with free trade and tapping foreign markets.
Leads to a decrease in the geographical constraints on social and cultural exchanges and can lead to both positive and negative effects.
• Positive: availability of food year round
• Negative: rising prices, civil unrest, global unemployment
The health sector is also expanding to global organizations: The American Red Cross, WHO, Doctors without Borders
is globalization positive or negative?
- Positive: availability of food year round
* Negative: rising prices, civil unrest, global unemployment
urbanization
refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration, cities are formed as individuals move into and establish residency in these new urban centers.
There are more opportunities in urban areas
Links between urban areas and greater health challenges.
Most cities have areas that are more well-off while others are impoverished.
• Ghettoes: areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequalities.
• Slum: an extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation.
ghettoes
areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequalities.
slum
an extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation.
cultural sensitivity
the recognition and respect of differences between cultures.
describe the characterization of a sick individual in functionalism theory
the sick individual is no longer a productive member of society and is deviant (going against the norms of society) and they have been placed into the social role of being sick
symbolic interactionism vs. social constructionism
symbolic: how we use symbols to interact with each other
social: how we as a society construct concepts and principles.
what concept problematizes the rational choice theory?
altruism
discuss the trends in divorce rates in the last two centuries
rose significantly in the second half of the twentieth century, but have started to drop over last 2 decades
what is another name for spousal abuse?
domestic violence
is reporting suspected domestic violence part of being a mandated reporter?
no, just elder and child abuse
sprituality vs. religion
Religion is a specific set of organised beliefs and practices, usually shared by a community or group. Spirituality is more of an individual practice and has to do with having a sense of peace and purpose. It also relates to the process of developing beliefs around the meaning of life and connection with others.
how is economics and government bidirectional
because of an economic downturn, individuals may decide to vote another individual into office.
how has the sick role changed in the last century
patients were once thought to not be responsible for being sick but now they are. It is their responsibility to stay healthy through diet, exercise, and seeking help before it is needed.
give examples of things that have been medicalized or demedicalized
demedicalized: homosexuality
medicalized: binge eating disorder
age cohort
A group of people born in the same generation
gender is a social construct that corresponds to ______
the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex
difference between race and ethnicity
race: social construct based on phenotypic differences
ethnicity: social construct based on cultural factors
You can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity but racial identities are always on display.
discuss race and medical care
there is evidence that different races are not always offered the same level of care escalation in a medical emergency.
describe examples of disparities in health among the LGBT community
physical health: HIV/AIDS epidemic
mental health: depression, higher risk for bullying
fighting for social power is an example of what sociology theory?
conflict theory
