MCAT Psych #2 Flashcards
sensation (transduction)
conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the NS.
o Goes from PNS to CNS, raw signal.
perception
the processing of information to make sense of its significance. Includes external sensory experience and internal activities of the brain and spinal cord. How to make sense of the world.
sensation vs. perception
sensation is the process of sensing our environment while perception is how we interpret these sensations,.
sensory receptors
neurons that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals.
distal stimuli
stimuli that originate outside of the body (ex: campfire)
proximal stimuli
directly interact with and affect the sensory receptors, and inform the observer about the presence of distal stimuli.
Ex: heat from campfire or photons from the light of the campfire.
psychophysics
the relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke.
ganglia
collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system.
o Transmit the data to the CNS
projection areas
location that the electrochemical energy signal is sent to in the brain which will then be further analyzed.
name the types of sensory receptors
o Photoreceptors: respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight)
o Hair cells: respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures (hearing, rotational, and linear acceleration)
o Nociceptors: respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation)
o Thermoreceptors: respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation)
o Osmoreceptors: respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)
o Olfactory receptors: respond to volatile compounds (smell)
o Taste receptors: respond to dissolved compounds (taste)
photoreceptors
respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight)
hair cells
respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures (hearing, rotational, and linear acceleration)
nocireceptors
respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation)
thermoreceptors
respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation)
osmoreceptors
respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)
olfactory receptors
Olfactory receptors: respond to volatile compounds (smell)
taste receptors
Taste receptors: respond to dissolved compounds (taste)
threshold
the minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception.
o Ex: temperature changes throughout the day but it is not noticed until a big change (threshold is hit)
o Ex: temperature changes throughout the day but it is not noticed until a big change (threshold is hit)
absolute threshold
o the minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system. The minimum intensity at which a stimulus will be transduced.
Threshold in sensation, not in perception.
How bright, loud, or intense a stimulus must be before it is sensed converted to an action potential.
Threshold of Conscious Perception
sensory systems send signals to the CNS without a person perceiving them (too small of stimulus or too brief)
A stimulus below the threshold of conscious perception arrives at the central nervous system but does not reach the higher-order brain regions that control attention and consciousness.
discrimination testing
what is the synonym of limina
threshold
what is the synonym for subliminal perception
threshold of conscious perception
discrimination testing
participant is shown one stimulus and then asked to identify if there is a difference in the second stimulus. Repeat until the participant reports noticing a change.
difference threshold
just noticeable difference (jnd)
the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference.
Ex: sound frequency: the jnd is 3 hz, between sound waves at 440 Hz and 443 Hz.
Can also look at the jnd as a %, which would be 3/440 = 0.68%
• Weber’s law: there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd and the magnitude of the original stimulus.
o Thus, for higher magnitude stimuli, the actual difference must be larger to produce a jnd.
o Holds for all sensory modalities except for at the extremely high or low ends of each range.
Weber’s Law
there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd and the magnitude of the original stimulus.
o Thus, for higher magnitude stimuli, the actual difference must be larger to produce a jnd.
o Holds for all sensory modalities except for at the extremely high or low ends of each range.
signal detection theory
Perception of stimuli can be affected by nonsensory factors, such as experiences (memory), motives, and expectations. Focuses on the changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context.
o Ex: hearing your name in a crowd: introvert or extrovert and size of the crowd matter
response bias
the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors.
response bias is indicated by a significant proportion of misses or false alarms in a signal detection experiment
Describe a signal detection experiment
o During each trial, a stimulus (signal) may or may not be presented
Catch trials: trials in which stimulus is presented
Noise trials: trials in which stimulus is not presented
o After each trial, the participant must indicate whether or not a signal was given.
o 4 possible outcomes:
Hits: the subject correctly perceives the signal
False alarms: subject seems to perceive a signal but there is actually no signal
Miss: subject fails to perceive a given signal
Correct negative: the subject correctly identifies that there was no signal given
o Response bias in the subject is indicated by a significant portion of misses or false alarms.
Signal detection: catch trial
trials in which stimulus is presented
Signal detection: noise trial
trials in which stimulus is not presented
Signal detection: hits
the subject correctly perceives the signal
Signal detection: false alarms
subject seems to perceive a signal but there is actually no signal
Signal detection: miss
subject fails to perceive a given signal
Signal detection: correct negative
the subject correctly identifies that there was no signal given
_______ in the subject during a signal detection experiment is indicated by a significant portion of _____ or _______
response bias
misses or false alarms
adaptation
when our detection of a stimulus changes over time. We like to pay attention to the changing stimulus in our environment.
- Can have both a physiological (sensory) and psychological (perceptual) component
- Ex: pupils dilate or get smaller in dark and light physiological
- Ex: stop feeling the clothes on our body after we put them on psychological
what is the pathway for a stimulus to reach the brain
sensory receptor afferent neuron sensory ganglion spinal cord brain (projection areas)
which lobe is devoted to vision
occipital lobe
what form of stimulus do the eyes detect
photons
sclera
the white of the eye, thick structural layer that covers the exposed portion of the eye.
does not protect the cornea
provides structural support
what two blood vessels supply nutrients to the eye?
o Choroidal vessels: complex of intermingling blood vessels between the sclera and retina.
o Retinal vessels: spread more inside the eye
choroidal vessels
complex of intermingling blood vessels between the sclera and retina.
retinal vessels
spread more inside the eye
retina
the innermost layer of the eye, contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical information the brain can process.
The back of the eye and is like a screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels.
o Converts photons to electrical signals.
Duplexity or duplicity theory of vision
the retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors: those specialized for light-and-dark detection and those specialized for color detection.
cones: color
rods: light and dark
cones
color vision and fine details, best for bright light
• The cones are named for the wavelengths at which they have highest light absorption: short (S, blue), medium (M, green), and long (L, red)
rods
good for reduced illumination, sensation of light and dark, night vision, not involved in color and low sensitivity to detail
• Contain rhodopsin: pigment
• Way more rods than cones in the human body
what wavelengths do short, medium, and long cones aborb?
short: blue
medium: green
long: red
there are way more _____ than ______ in humans (eye photoreceptors)
way more rods than cones
cornea
not covered by the sclera. A clear, domelike window in the front of the eye which gathers and focuses the incoming light. it is the first place that light passes through.
draw the structures of the front of the eye
anterior chamber posterior chamber iris: dilator pupillae and constrictor pupillae choroid cornea retina ciliary body canal of Schlemm ciliary muscle suspensory ligaments lens fovea optic disc vitreous humor
anterior chamber
lies in front of the iris
posterior chamber
between the iris and lens
iris
colored part of the eye, composed of two muscles
Dilator pupillae: opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation
2. Constrictor pupillae: constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation.
Dilator pupillae: Iris
opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation
Constrictor pupillae: Iris
constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation
the iris and ciliary body are continuous with the _______
choroid
ciliary body
produces the aqueous humor, which bathes the front part of the eye
• The aqueous humor then drains into the canal of Schlemm
• Contraction of the ciliary muscle (part of the ciliary body) is under parasympathetic control.
• Accommodation: As the ciliary muscle contracts, it pulls on the suspensory ligaments and changes the shape of the lens.
the aqueous humor drains into the _____
canal of Schlemm
contraction of the ciliary muscle is under _______ control
parasympathetic
accomodation
As the ciliary muscle contracts, it pulls on the suspensory ligaments and changes the shape of the lens.
lens
lies right behind the iris and helps control the refraction of incoming light
vitreous
a transparent gel that supports the retina.
macula
central secretion of the retina, has a high concentration of cones
o Center-most point is the fovea which contains only cones.
Move further away from the fovea, more rods, less cones.
there is a blind spot where the _____ leaves the eye
optic nerve
what is the path from rods/cones to the optic nerve
o Rods/cones bipolar cells (amacrine and horizontal cells) ganglion cells
Bipolar cells: highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones
Ganglion cells: group together to form the optic nerve
• A lot of rods and cones project to one ganglion cell, losing resolution
Projection happens from the back of the eye to the front of the eye.
Amacrine and horizontal cells: accentuate slight differences between the visual info in each bipolar cell. Important for edge detection and perception of contrasts.
• Intermediate and lateral processing of info
• Not really a steps but can mediate info.
bipolar cells
highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones
ganglion cells
group together to form the optic nerve
• A lot of rods and cones project to one ganglion cell, losing resolution
projection happens from the ______ of the eye to the ___ of the eye
back to front
moving from the receptors to the ganglion cells.
amacrine and horizontal cells
accentuate slight differences between the visual info in each bipolar cell. Important for edge detection and perception of contrasts.
• Intermediate and lateral processing of info
• Not really a steps but can mediate info.
visual pathways
refer to both the physical and anatomical connections between the eyes and the brain and the flow of visual information along these connections.
describe the visual pathway
o 1. Left visual field to right retina and vice versa
o 2. Optic nerves
o 3. Optic chiasm: fibers from the nasal half (close to the nose) of each retina cross paths (Left visual field project to right side of the brain)
o 4. Optic tracts: pathway once it leaves the optic chiasm.
o 5. Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus
o 6. Visual cortex in the occipital lobe + superior colliculus
the left visual field projects to the ___ side of the brain
right
parallel processing
the ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion. Then compare to our memory to determine what it actually is that we are looking at.
o Feature detection: our visual pathways contain cells specialized in detection of color, shape, or motion.
Color: cones
Shape: 3D geometry, and discriminate object from background
• Parvocellular cells: have very high color spatial resolution (permit us to see very fine detail when thoroughly examining an object.
o Can only work with slow moving or stationary objects as they have low temporal resolution.
Motion:
• Magnocellular cells: have high temporal resolution, but low spatial resolution. Blurry but moving image of an object.
feature detection
our visual pathways contain cells specialized in detection of color, shape, or motion.
Color: cones
Shape: 3D geometry, and discriminate object from background
• Parvocellular cells: have very high color spatial resolution (permit us to see very fine detail when thoroughly examining an object.
o Can only work with slow moving or stationary objects as they have low temporal resolution.
feature detection: color
cones
feature detection: shape
: 3D geometry, and discriminate object from background
• Parvocellular cells: have very high color spatial resolution (permit us to see very fine detail when thoroughly examining an object.
o Can only work with slow moving or stationary objects as they have low temporal resolution.
feature detection: motion
Magnocellular cells: have high temporal resolution, but low spatial resolution. Blurry but moving image of an object.
low temporal resolution means
can only work with slow moving objects or stationary objects
parvocellular cells
have very high color spatial resolution (permit us to see very fine detail when thoroughly examining an object.
o Can only work with slow moving or stationary objects as they have low temporal resolution.
magnocellular cells
have high temporal resolution, but low spatial resolution. Blurry but moving image of an object.
vestibular sense
sense of rotation and linear acceleration.
what are the 3 divisions of the ear
inner, middle, outer
describe the outer ear
o Pinna (auricle): cartilaginous outside part of the ear. Role is to channel sound waves into the external auditory canal which directs them to the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
pinna (auricle)
cartilaginous outside part of the ear. Role is to channel sound waves into the external auditory canal which directs them to the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
tympanic membrane
vibrates according to frequency of the sound wave
o Intensity: amplitude of vibration (louder sounds have greater intensity)
tympanic membrane
vibrates according to frequency of the sound wave
o Intensity: amplitude of vibration (louder sounds have greater intensity)
describe the middle ear
o Houses the ossicles: 3 of the smallest bones in the body. Help to transmit and amplify the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear.
Malleus (hammer): affixed to the tympanic membrane, acts on the incus (anvil), which acts on the stapes (stirrup). Baseplate of stapes rests on the oval window of the cochlea which is the entrance to the inner ear.
o Eustachian tube: connects the middle ear to the nasal cavity which helps to equalize pressure between the middle ear and the environment.
order the:
malleus, stapes, and incus and give their other names
- malleus: hammer
- incus: anvil
- stapes: stirrup
malleus is affixed to the ______ and the stapes rests on the _______
tympanic membrane, oval window
eustachian tube
connects the middle ear to the nasal cavity which helps to equalize pressure between the middle ear and the environment.
describe the inner ear
o Sits in a bony labyrinth, contains cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals.
Mostly filled with membranous labyrinth which is bathed with potassium rich endolymph fluid.
• The membranous labyrinth is suspended within the body labyrinth by a thin layer of another fluid perilymph (transmits vibrations and cushions inner ear)
o Cochlea: spiral-shaped organ divided into 3 parts: called scalae, which all run the length of the cochlea.
Organ of Corti (middle scalae): the actual hearing apparatus. Rests on a thin, flexible membrane called the basilar membrane.
• Composed of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph concert the physical stimulus to electrical signal
• Tectorial membrane: on top of the organ of Corti.
The other two scalea are filled with perilymph and surround the hearing apparatus and are continuous with the oval and round windows of the cochlea.
o Round window: a membrane-covered hole in the cochlea, permits the perilymph to actually move within the cochlea.
which is on inside vs outside: endolymph and perilymph
Endolymph is on inside of perilymph and the perilymph is on the inside of bony labyrinth.
cochlea
spiral-shaped organ divided into 3 parts: called scalae, which all run the length of the cochlea.
Organ of Corti (middle scalae): the actual hearing apparatus. Rests on a thin, flexible membrane called the basilar membrane.
• Composed of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph convert the physical stimulus to electrical signal
• Tectorial membrane: on top of the organ of Corti.
The other two scalae are filled with perilymph and surround the hearing apparatus and are continuous with the oval and round windows of the cochlea.
organ of Corti
Corti (middle scalae): the actual hearing apparatus. Rests on a thin, flexible membrane called the basilar membrane.
• Composed of thousands of hair cells bathed in endolymph concert the physical stimulus to electrical signal
• Tectorial membrane: on top of the organ of Corti.
round window
a membrane-covered hole in the cochlea, permits the perilymph to actually move within the cochlea.
auditory nerve
vestibulocochlear nerve, goes to the CNS, temporal lobe
vestibule: part of bony labrynth
the portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule.
o Sensitive to linear acceleration, so used as part of the balancing apparatus and to determine one’s orientation in 3D space.
o Contain modified hair cells covered with otoliths
Bend and signal to brain when in motion
semicircular canal: part of bony labyrinth
sensitive to rotational acceleration.
o Oriented perpendicular to each other and each end in a swelling called the ampulla (hair cells are located)
o Head rotates, hair cells bend, signal to brain.
semicircular canal: part of bony labyrinth
sensitive to rotational acceleration.
o Oriented perpendicular to each other and each end in a swelling called the ampulla (hair cells are located)
o Head rotates, hair cells bend, signal to brain.
what is the auditory pathway
ear, vestibulocochlear nerve, medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus, auditory cortex in temporal lobe
nucleus in brain
cluster of neurons
other than the auditory cortex, some sound is sent to the _____ and the ______
superior olive: localizes the sound
inferior colliculus: startle-reflex and helps keep eyes fixed while head is turned
hair cells
• Have long tufts of stereocilia on their top surface.
• Movement of fluid inside the cochlea leads to depolarization of the neuron associated with the hair cell.
• The basilar membrane changes thickness depending on its location in the cochlea.
• Place theory: accepted theory on sound perception. States that the location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch when that hair cell is vibrated.
o High frequency: vibrations of basilar membrane close to oval window.
o Low frequency: vibrations at the apex, away from the oval window.
o Tonotopic organization: cochlea, which hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of the sound.
name of hair cells in ear
sterocilia
place theory
accepted theory on sound perception. States that the location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch when that hair cell is vibrated.
o High frequency: vibrations of basilar membrane close to oval window.
o Low frequency: vibrations at the apex, away from the oval window.
o Tonotopic organization: cochlea, which hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of the sound.
describe sound through the ear
Sound waves produced pinna funnels external auditory canal funnels tympanic membrane (ear drum), vibrates causes the ossicles to vibrate: malleus, incus, stapes stapes is attached to oval window, oval window vibrates oval window gets pushed into and out of cochlea, pushes fluid fluid goes through circle of cochlea and then comes back out to the circular/round window, organ of Corti (basilar membrane and tectorial membrane) makes the waves go to this new window hairs in cochlea pushed back and forth, physical to electrical
what is the only sense that does not travel through the thalamus
• Smell is the only sense that does not travel through the thalamus and instead goes unfiltered into higher-order brain centers.
smell
• Smell is the only sense that does not travel through the thalamus and instead goes unfiltered into higher-order brain centers.
• Responds to volatile or aerosolized compounds.
• Olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves): located in olfactory epithelium in the upper part of the nasal cavity.
o Certain smells bind to their specific chemoreceptors.
• Pheromones: when smells carry interpersonal information.
o Influence social, foraging, and sexual behavior.
o Released by one animal and received by another, inciting behavior.
• Olfactory pathway:
o Nasal passages olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium olfactory bulb (sent signals by the receptor cells) to higher regions of the brain via the olfactory tract (to places such as the limbic system)
Olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves)
located in olfactory epithelium in the upper part of the nasal cavity.
o Certain smells bind to their specific chemoreceptors.
pheremones
when smells carry interpersonal information.
o Influence social, foraging, and sexual behavior.
o Released by one animal and received by another, inciting behavior in the receiver.
describe the olfactory pathway
o Nasal passages olfactory nerves in olfactory epithelium olfactory bulb (sent signals by the receptor cells) higher regions of the brain (such as the limbic system)
what are the 5 basic tastes
5 basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory)
taste
• 5 basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory)
• Chemoreceptors: detect taste, sensitive to dissolved compounds
• Taste buds: receptors for taste.
o Found in tiny bumps in the mouth called papillae
• Taste pathway:
o Taste buds brainstem taste center (in the thalamus) higher-order brain areas
taste buds
receptors for taste.
o Found in tiny bumps in the mouth called papillae
taste pathway
taste buds brainstem taste center (in the thalamus) higher-order brain areas
what is somatosensation
touch
what are the 4 modalities of somatosensation
pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature
somatosensation
• Has 4 modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature
• Many different receptors that receive tactile information:
o Pacinian corpuscles: respond to deep pressure and vibration
o Meissner corpuscles: respond to light touch
o Merkel cells (discs): respond to deep pressure and texture
o Ruffini endings: respond to stretch
o Free nerve endings: respond to pain and temperature
• Somatosensory pathway:
o Receptors CNS somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe)
• Two-point threshold: the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli.
o Size depends on the density of the nerves in the particular area of skin being tested.
• Physiological zero: the normal temperature of the skin (86-97 degrees F) is used to judge temperature.
o Objects feel cold or warm if they are below or above this value
• Pain:
o Nociceptors: signal pain
o Pain relies on thresholds which are different for every person
o The gate theory of pain: there is a special ‘gating’ mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain
The spinal cord relays other signals to the brain instead of the pain which reduces the sensation of pain.
Pacinian corpuscles:
respond to deep pressure and vibration
Meissner corpuscles:
respond to light touch
Merkel cells (discs)
respond to deep pressure and texture
Ruffini endings
respond to stretch
Free nerve endings
respond to pain and temperature
somatosensory pathway
o Receptors CNS somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe)
two-point threshold
the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli.
o Size depends on the density of the nerves in the particular area of skin being tested.
physiological zero
the normal temperature of the skin (86-97 degrees F) is used to judge temperature.
o Objects feel cold or warm if they are below or above this value
what receptors detect pain
nocireceptors
pain
o Nociceptors: signal pain
o Pain relies on thresholds which are different for every person
o The gate theory of pain: there is a special ‘gating’ mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain
The spinal cord relays other signals to the brain instead of the pain which reduces the sensation of pain.
the gate theory of pain
there is a special ‘gating’ mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain
Pain sensation is reduced when other somatosensory signals are present.
The spinal cord relays other signals to the brain instead of the pain which reduces the sensation of pain. This is why rubbing your leg after you bump it on a table can seem to reduce the feeling of pain.
proprioception
the ability to tell one’s body is in space.
- Even with eyes closed, can still describe position and location of hand.
- Receptors are found in muscles and joints, important for hand-eye coordination, balance, and mobility.
bottom up processing
data driven
object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection.
o Brain takes individual sensory stimuli, combines them to create cohesive image before determining what the object is.
top down processing
conceptually drive
driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations.
o Quickly recognize objects without needing to analyze specific parts.
perceptual organization
the ability to use these bottom up and top down processes in tandem with all of the other sensory clues about an object to create a complete picture or idea.
o Depth perception: rely on both monocular and binocular cues (processes that involve one or both eyes)
Monocular cues: relative size of objects, partial obscuring of one object by another, the convergence of parallel lines at a distance, position of an object in the visual field, and lighting and shadowing.
Binocular cues: slight differences in images projected on the two retinas and the angle required between the two eyes to bring an object into focus.
o Form of object: determined through parallel processing and feature detection
o Constancy: the idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment.
Ex: white sheet of paper is always white regardless of what type of light it is in.
depth perception
rely on both monocular and binocular cues (processes that involve one or both eyes)
Monocular cues: relative size of objects, partial obscuring of one object by another, the convergence of parallel lines at a distance, position of an object in the visual field, and lighting and shadowing.
Binocular cues: slight differences in images projected on the two retinas and the angle required between the two eyes to bring an object into focus.
monocular cues
relative size of objects, partial obscuring of one object by another, the convergence of parallel lines at a distance, position of an object in the visual field, and lighting and shadowing.
binocular cues
slight differences in images projected on the two retinas and the angle required between the two eyes to bring an object into focus.
form of object
determined through parallel processing and feature detection
constancy
the idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same, despite differences in the environment.
Ex: white sheet of paper is always white regardless of what type of light it is in.
gestalt principles
the ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete.
o Law of proximity: elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit.
o Law of similarity: objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
o Law of good continuation: elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together continuous patterns rather than abrupt changes
o Subjective contours: perceiving contours and shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus.
o Law of closure: when a space is enclosed by a contour, it tends to be perceived as a complete figure. Figures tend to be perceived as more complete than they actually are.
Law of proximity
gestalt Principle
elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit.
Law of similarity
gestalt Principle
objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
Law of good continuation
gestalt Principle
elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together continuous patterns rather than abrupt changes
Subjective contours
gestalt Principle
perceiving contours and shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus.
Law of closure
gestalt Principle
when a space is enclosed by a contour, it tends to be perceived as a complete figure. Figures tend to be perceived as more complete than they actually are.
law of pragnanz
perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible. Governs the gestalt principles.
how does sensory adaptation affect a difference threshold?
you are becoming so use to the stimulus, it is going to increase the jnd because you now need a larger difference in stimuli to actually notice the difference.
the dilator pupillae is used for the _____ NS and the constrictor pupillae is used for the ____ NS
sympathetic
parasympathetic
the iris and the ciliary body are continuous with the ____
choroid
the ciliary body produces the ______
aqueous humor that bathes the front part of the eye
the aqueous humor drains into the ____
canal of Schlemm
the ciliary muscle is under ____ NS control
parasympathetic
what are the 3 types of cone photoreceptors and what type of light do they absorb?
blue (short)
green (medium)
red (long)
what is the single pigment that rods contain?
rhodopsin
the center most point of the macula is called the _____ and it is important because ______
fovea
it is completely cones and is the location of the most visual acuity
there are a lot more receptors than ganglia cells in the eye which leads to ______
reduced resolution as info converges.
less reduced resolution for cones than rods –> greater visual acuity.
amacrine and horizontal cells are important for _____ as they increase our perception of contrasts
edge detection
parallel processing and feature detection
parallel processing: combine info on shape, color, and motion to form final image
feature detection: actual cells in our visual pathways that are specialized for info on shape, color, and motion
pupil
the opening within the iris through which light passes before reaching the lens
allows passage of light from anterior to posterior chamber
tympanic membrane: the frequency of sound waves determines the _____ of vibration and the intensity of sound waves determines the _____ of vibration
frequency
amplitude
the ___ separates the outer ear from the middle ear
tympanic membrane
the _____ of the cochlea is the entrance to the inner ear
oval window
what are the many layers of the inner ear
(outside) bony labyrinth ==> perilymph ==> membraneous labyrinth ==> endolymph
the role of the perilymph is to___
transmit vibrations and to protect the inner ear by cushioning it
fibers near the upper end of the cochlea respond to _____ frequency sound
lower
____ are on top of hair cells in the _____ which is responsible for being sensitivity to linear acceleration
otoliths
vestibule
sound and superior olive
the superior olive localizes sound
how do the hair cells (stereocilia) of the ear work?
the hair cells have the stereocilia on top of them which sway back and forth and opens ion channels which causes a change in receptor potential.
vibrations in cochlea allow the tectorial membrane to ___
to pull on the hair cells enlodged in basal membrane which causes the ion channels to open
pitch = ____
frequency
flavor =
smell + taste and can be affected by texture and mood
what is a synonym for kinesthetic sense
proprioception
where are the receptors for proprioception found?
muscle and joints
light from the left visual field is processed in the ____ hemisphere of the brain
right
Top down and bottom up processing: which is faster and which is more prone to mistakes?
Top down processing is faster and more prone to mistakes
nasal visual field vs. temporal visual field
temporal visual field is what goes through the optic chiasm.
nasal visual fields cross the nose
If the jnd and weber’s law is 25%, then anything _____ 25% difference can be noticed
greater than
the pupil and iris regulate _____
the amount of light coming into the eye
both bony labrynth and membraneous labrynth contribute to the cochlea and the ____
vestibule
temporal visual field projects to _____ retina
nasal
