MCAT Psych #3 Flashcards
learning
the way in which we acquire new behaviors. Change in behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus.
stimulus
anything to which an organism can respond including all sensory inputs.
habituation
repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response.
dishabituation
the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred.
o Ex: driving on a road for awhile, habituate, then off ramp, start taking in sensory info again as you move onto a new highway (OG stimulus)
o Changes in response to the original stimulus, not the new one.
associative learning
the creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response.
classical conditioning
associative learning
a type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create association between two unrelated stimuli. The process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.
- unconditioned stimulus
- neutral stimulus
- conditioned stimulus
- acquisitional/classical conditioning
- extinction
unconditioned stimulus
: any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response (jump to loud sound)
• Unconditioned response: the response.
unconditioned response
response to unconditioned stimulus
neutral stimuli
do not produce a reflexive response
Signaling stimuli: neutral stimuli that have the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus.
Signaling stimuli
potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus.
describe Pavlov’s dogs
Unconditioned stimulus: meat
Unconditioned response: salivate
Neutral stimulus: bell became conditioned stimulus
Bell was wrung and then meat was placed in the dogs mouths. Eventually, after the bell was wrung, the dogs salivated regardless if meat was every presented.
conditioned stimulus
a normally neutral stimulus that through association now causes a reflexive response (conditioned response)
Acquisition/classical conditioning
the process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.
extinction
if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can become habituated to the conditioned stimulus.
• Spontaneous recovery: after extinction, conditioned stimulus presented, get a weak conditioned response
You can _______ the response to a conditioned stimulus after acquisition
generalize
• Generalization: a broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response.
o White bunny, rat, coat, beard
• Discrimination: an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli (opposite of generalization)
o Pavlov’s dogs different tones of bells
generalization: conditioning
a broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response.
o White bunny, rat, coat, beard
discrimination: conditioning
an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli (opposite of generalization)
o Pavlov’s dogs different tones of bells
operant conditioning
links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors.
behaviorism
operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner’s theory that all behaviors are conditioned
reinforcement
the process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
positive reinforcers
increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior. (money)
negative reinforcers
increase the frequency of the behavior but do so by removing something unpleasant (aspirin)
divided into 2:
o 1. Escape learning: the role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of some thing that already exists (headache)
o 2. Avoidance learning: meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
primary reinforcer
the reinforcer is something that the organism responds to naturally (fish treat for a dolphin performing a trick. Dolphin does trick and gets fish treat, responds to the fish treat naturally)
conditioned reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)
classical conditioning to pair primary reinforcer with something else to elicit a response (fish treat + whistle behavior)
the whistle is the conditioned reinforcer
discriminative stimulus
indicates that reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm (the trainer being there and the dolphin sees them)
reinforcement schedules
can be fixed or variable and can be ratio or interval
o Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules: reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
Ex: rat gets pellet every 3rd time it hits bar
Continuous reinforcement: a fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed.
o Variable-ratio (VR schedules: reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant.
Ex: reward rat after 2, 4, 6, 8 button presses.
o Fixed-interval (FI) schedules: reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed.
Ex: rat gets pellet, can’t get another pellet until lever push that occurs after 60 seconds.
o Variable-interval (VI) schedules: reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time.
Ex: rat has to wait different amounts of times, after interval elapses, the next press gets the rat a pellet.
Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
Ex: rat gets pellet every 3rd time it hits bar
Continuous reinforcement: a fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed.
continuous reinforcement
a fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed.
Variable-ratio (VR schedule)
reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant.
Ex: reward rat after 2, 4, 6, 8 button presses.
The rat will continue pressing the bar quickly with the hope that the next press will be the “right one”
Fixed-interval (FI) schedules
reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed.
Ex: rat gets pellet, can’t get another pellet until lever push that occurs after 60 seconds.
Variable-interval (VI) schedules
reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time.
Ex: rat has to wait different amounts of times, after interval elapses, the next press gets the rat a pellet.
which reinforcement schedule is most and least efficient for teaching a new task
best: variable ration
worst: fixed interval
punishment
uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
positive vs. negative operant conditooning
positive: do something
negative: take something away
reinforcement vs. punishment
reinforcement: want them to do it again
punishment: want them not to do it again
positive punishment
adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior (flog a thief for stealing)
negative punishment
the reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed (do not let child watch tv for bad behavior to try and reduce the behavior)
operant conditioning: shaping
the process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
• Reward for gradual improvements to what the full action should be
• Can take a long time but can get an organism to do extremely specific things
latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced.
o Ex: Rats carried through maze can get through it better once a reward is introduced than rats that were operant conditioning trained to get through it.
problem solving
take a step back, observe the situation, and take decisive action to solve the challenge
o Puzzle solving: when we are younger, just try to jam pieces in. Now, base our attempts on the shape of the pieces and what picture the puzzle is making.
preparedness
organisms are most able to learn or not learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts
o Ex: bird getting rewarded for pecking motion (usually pecks for food)
o Ex: tried to train racoons to put coins in a piggy bank but they wouldn’t let go of the coins (wash nuts in river and then pull them out to eat them). Instinctive drift: difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors.
instinctive drive
difficulty in overcoming instinctive behaviors
observational learning
the process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others.
o Ex: adult beats up a doll, children watched, children left to play in the room, they ignored the other toys and also inflicted violence on the doll.
Not simply imitation: if adult was scolded after doing this, then the children were less likely to do it.
o Mirror neurons: located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action.
Largely involved in motor processes, but also empathy and vicarious emotions.
Ex: monkeys sticking tongue out with adult.
o Modeling: people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them.
Observe and perform important for determining an individual’s behavior throughout their life.
mirror neurons
located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action.
modeling
people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them.
Observe and perform important for determining an individual’s behavior throughout their life.
what are the three major processes for memory formation
encoding, storage, retrieval
encoding
The process of putting new information into memory.
storage
memory must be stored to be remembered after encoding.
retrieval
being able to pull memories back out and use them. Process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained.
automatic processing
encoding
information that is gained without effort, info that we gain passively absorbed from the environment. Absorb info without thinking.
controlled (effortful processing)
encoding
active memorization such as flashcards
visual encoding
visualize the meaning of info (weakest)
included with acoustic and semantic encoding
acoustic encoding
store the way it sounds
included with visual and semantic encoding
semantic encoding
put it into a meaningful context (strongest)
included with acoustic and visual encoding
self-reference effect
encoding
we recall info better when we can put it into the context of our own lives.
maintenance rehearsal
encoding
the repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory.
mnemonics
encoding
acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we are trying to remember.
method of loci and peg-word are other types of mnemonics
method of loci
encoding
associating each item in a list with a location along a walk through a building that has already been memorized.
• Ex: milk carton on doorstep, eggs on fridge, etc. Want to remember them then take a mental walk through the location.
peg-word
encoding
associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
• Ex: two shoe
chunking
encoding
involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meeting.
what are the types of memory storage
sensory, short-term, working, long-term
sensory memory
storage
lasts only a short time, but eyes and ears take in a lot of info.
Iconic (visual)
Echoic (auditory)
Experiment:
• Subject is flashed a set of 9 letters and asked to report which ones she saw (whole-report) gets 3-4
• Asked for one row, random after the fact (partial-report) gets 100%
Eidetic memory: can recall an image with high precision after brief exposure for a couple minutes (primarily in children)
eidetic memory
storage
can recall an image with high precision after brief exposure for a couple minutes afterward (primarily in children)
whole report vs. partial report sensory memory
storage
Flash 9 cards to a participant
whole: asked to report what cards they saw
partial: asked to report a specific row or column (more accurate)
the person’s iconic sensory memory makes them aware of all 9 letters, but the letters fade before they are able to recall all of them.
short-term memory
storage
we pay attention to some of the info we are exposed to but this info also fades after 30 seconds without rehearsal.
Short duration and list of 7 +/- 2
Hippocampus (which is also where short-term memory is consolidated to long-term memory)
hippocampus
storage
stores short term memory and is also where short-term memory is consolidated to long-term memory
also supports working memory
working memory
storage
closely related to short-term memory and is similarly supported by the hippocampus.
Allows us to keep a few pieces of info in our conscious simultaneously and manipulate that information.
Short term memory + attention + executive function (math problems in our head)
draw the picture of the type of human memory tree
human memory
1. sensory memory, shirt-term memory, working memory, long-term memory
- Under long term: explicit and implicit
- Under implicit: procedural
Under explicit: declarative - Under declarative: episodic and semantic
long term memory
storage
moves from short term to long term memory with enough rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal: the association of the information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory.
Located in the hippocampus but moves to the cerebral cortex over time.
Two types of long term memory:
• Implicit (nondeclarative or procedural) memory: consists of our skills and conditioned responses.
• Explicit (declarative) memory: consists of those memories that require conscious recall. Divided further:
o Semantic memory: the facts that we know
o Episodic memory: our experiences
elaborative rehearsal
storage
the association of the information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory.
implicit/nondeclarative or procedural memory
storage
consists of our skills and conditioned responses.
explicit (declarative) memory
storage
consists of those memories that require conscious recall. Divided further:
o Semantic memory: the facts that we know
o Episodic memory: our experiences
semantic memory
storage
the facts that we know
episodic memory
storage
our experiences
recall
retrieval
retrieval and statement of previously learned information
BUT learning can also be demonstrated by relearning or recognizing info.
recognition
retrieval
the process of merely identifying a piece of info that was previously learned.
relearning
retrieval: : the info is stored, but it is not quite ready for recall.
Spacing effect: the longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on.
Spacing effect
retrieval/relearning
the longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on.
semantic network
concepts are linked in the brain together based on similar meaning (kind of like internet searchers with links to related things)
Spreading activation: when one node of our semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts are also unconsciously activated (red fire truck, roses, purple)
• Priming: recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory.
spreading activation
retrieval/semantic network
when one node of our semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts are also unconsciously activated (red fire truck, roses, purple)
priming
retrieval/semantic network/spreading activation
recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory.
context effects
retrieval
memory is added by being in the physical location where encoding took place.
State-dependent memory (state-dependent effect)
retrieval
a person’s mental state can also affect recall
People who learn facts or skills while intoxicated will do them better when intoxicated versus not being intoxicated.
Memory can also be better when you’re in a similar mood as that in the memory and the memory can sustain the mood.
serial position effect
retrieval
appears while learning lists, remember things based on where they came in the list.
Primacy effect: remember early items in the list (stays a little longer)
Recency effect: remember late items in the list (fades after a little)
primacy effect
retrieval/serial position effect
remember early items in the list (stays a little longer)
recency effect
retrieval/serial position effect
remember late items in the list (fades after a little)
Alzheimer’s disease
degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked with acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus (not sure)
• Dementia: loss of cognitive function and memory loss, atrophy of brain
• Microscopic findings: neurofibrillary tangles and B-amyloid plaques
o Shrinkage of hippocampus and cerebral cortex and increase in ventricles.
• Sundowning: an increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening
dementia
Alzheimer’s
loss of cognitive function and memory loss, atrophy of brain
sundowning
Alzheimer’s
an increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening
korsakoff’s syndrome
caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain
- Retrograde amnesia: the loss of previously formed memories
- Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form new memories
- Confabulation: the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories brains attempt to fill the gaps in memories.
retrograde amnesia
the loss of previously formed memories
anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new memories
confabulation
the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories brains attempt to fill the gaps in memories.
agnosia
loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, though usually only one of the three
• Usually caused by physical damage to the brain.
decay in memories
memories are simply lost over time as short-term memory fades
interference effect: memory
a retrieval error caused by the existence of other, usually similar, information.
Proactive interference: old information is interfering with new learning (new address memorization)
Retroactive interference: when new information is causing forgetting of old information.
proactive interference: memory
old information is interfering with new learning (new address memorization)
retroactive interference
when new information is causing forgetting of old information.
prospective memory
as we age, remembering to perform a task at some point in the future
• Remains intact when it is event based (buy milk while at grocery store), while time-based memory fades (medication at 7am) (remembering to do an event at a particular time)
false memories
memories that are not true
misinformation effect
tendency for post-event information to interfere with the memory of the original event. Researchers have shown that the introduction of even relatively subtle information following an event can have a dramatic effect on how people remember.
happens when a person’s recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information
• Explain crash as very bad or just say a crash occurred and then ask the person who watched the crash videos how fast the people were going
source-monitoring error
involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory: the person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained.
• Ex: hear story about someone else and confuse it as happening to yourself.
neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, or brain plasticity, is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change through growth and reorganization as our brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli
o More neuroplasticity when we are younger take out part of child’s brain, other parts of the brain will restructure to make up for the functions of the lost part.
synaptic pruning
as we grow older, weak synaptic connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains’ ability to process information.
long term potentiation
strengthening of a long-term synaptic connection
the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory
o Stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density. This happens when the same pathway is fired again and again
persistent strengthening of synapses that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons.
pattern of memory consolidation
Sensory memory when maintained, moved to short-term memory when manipulated through working memory in the hippocampus in the temporal lobe moved to cerebral cortex over time as long-term memory.
dishabituation refers to changes in response to the ______
original stimulus
what are the two types of associative learning
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning
classical conditioning is concerned with instincts and biological responses while operant conditioning links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of the behaviors.
what is an example of a positive reinforcer
money, do the behavior (work), get the money
what is an example of a negative reinforcer
advil, do the behavior (take it), takes away the headache
Another example would be doing the dishes (behavior, continue to do it) in order to get mother to stop nagging.
what is an example of positive punishment
flogging a thief: introduce an aversive stimulus to reduce future behavior.
what is an example of negative punishment
remove TV privileges for bad behavior
variable ratio reinforcement schedule is _____ and _____
VR: very rapid and very resistant to extinction
gambling uses what type of reinforcement schedule?
variable ratio: although the probability of winning the jackpot is the same on every pull, think it will be the next one always.
Example of how observational learning is not simply imitation?
Bobo doll: person gets scolded after pounding the doll and the child will no longer beat up the doll.
where are mirror neurons located?
frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex
List the 3 types of encoding and which is most effective
semantic: put info into meaningful context
acoustic: store the way the info sounds
visual: visualize the information
what is the most fleeting kind of memory storage?
sensory memory
what are the two most studied type of sensory memory?
iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory)
What are the components of Baddeley and Hitch’s 3-pert working memory model?
visuospatial sketchpad
phonological loop
the central executive
episodic buffer
visuospatial sketchpad
the ability to store visual and spatial information and to manipulate it
phonological loop
The phonological loop is a component of working memory model that deals with auditory information. It is subdivided into the phonological store (which holds words we hear) and the articulatory process (which allows us to repeat words in a loop).
The phonologial loop gives us the ability to temporarily hold spoken or written information in our memory through repetition; for example, you use this when trying to remember a phone number.
central executive
The central executive acts like the “boss” of the other three components and directs our attention.
episodic buffer
Last, the episodic buffer is used to relate current experiences to memories of the past. For example, if you see a house and realize it looks similar to your childhood home.
memories are moved, over time, from the ____ to the ____
hippocampus
to the cerebral cortex
what are the other names for implicit memory
non-declarative or procedural memory
flashbulb memory
the detailed recollection of stimuli immediately surrounding an important or emotionally arousing event.
a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid snapshot of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard.
combines semantic and episodic declarative memory
learning can be demonstrated by recall and by ______
recognizing or quickly relearning information
list the retrieval cues
semantic network
context effects
state-dependent effect
serial position effect
Cognitive functioning
refers to multiple mental abilities, including learning, thinking, reasoning, remembering, problem solving, decision making, and attention.
what are some potential causes of Alzheimer’s disease?
loss of acetylcholine in the hippocampus
formation of Beta amyloid plaques
neurofibrillary tangles
shrinkage of hippocampus and cerebral cortex
severely enlarged ventricles
what is the cause of Korsakoff syndrome
thiamine deficiency
Explain Ebbinghaus’ curve of forgetting
after learning a list of words, recall falls sharply but then levels off.
similarity between retrograde amnesia and retroactive interference
both pertain to forgetting old info
does aging lead to significant memory loss?
no. it is actually true that 70 year olds have a larger memory capability than 20 year olds.
event-based prospective memory vs. time base prospective memory
event-based: walk by a store and remember to get milk
time-based: remember to take your pill at a certain time (declines with age)
Can memories be influenced by our thoughts and feelings?
yes, both at the time the memory is being encoded and later during the recall process.
maintenance rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsal
maintenance rehearsal is the repetition of information to keep it within short term memory for near immediate use
Elaborative rehearsal is the association of information to other store knowledge and is a more effective way to move information from short term to long term memory.
pathway of memory
stored as sensory memory in projection area and then if it is maintained it is moved to short term memory in the hippocampus (temporal lobe). It is manipulated through working memory while in the hippocampus (in tandem with frontal and parietal lobes) and stored for later recall. Over long period of time the memory will move from the hippocampus back to the cerebral cortex.
most of our every day activities are processed through _____
automatic processing
semantic memory vs. semantic networks
semantic memory: category of long term memory that relates to recall of facts
semantic networks: association of similar concepts in the mind to aid with their retrieval
state-dependent recall is concerned with ____ rather than ____ states of the individual
internal rather than external
