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MCAT Psych > MCAT Psych #1 > Flashcards

MCAT Psych #1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Franz Gall (1759-1828)

A

o Behavior, intellect and personality may be linked to brain anatomy
o Phrenology: brain area for trait expands for well-developed trait
 Measure psychological attributes by feeling or measuring the skull FALSE

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2
Q

Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)

A

o Studied the function of major sections of the brain
o Extirpation or ablation: remove parts of the brain and observe behavioral consequences
 Specific parts have specific functions, remove one part and it weakens the whole thing.

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3
Q

William James (1842-1910)

A

o How the mind functions in adapting to the environment
o Functionalism: a system of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.

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4
Q

John Dewey (1859-1952)

A

o Also important in functionalism
o Reflex arc, breaks the process of reacting to stimulus into discrete parts.
o Psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it adapts to environment

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5
Q

Paul Broca (1824-1880)

A

o Examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage  physiology
 Specific functional impairments can be linked with specific brain lesions.
o Broca’s area: man unable to talk cause of lesion in Broca’s area (left side of the brain)

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6
Q

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)

A

o First to measure the speed of a nerve impulse. Nerve impulses in terms of reaction time  psychology mix with natural sciences.

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7
Q

Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952)

A

o Inferred the existence of synapses. He thought synapses were an electrical process but we now know that they are a chemical process.

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8
Q

What are the types of neurons in the nervous system?

A 
sensory neurons (afferent neurons)
motor neurons (efferent neurons)
interneurons
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9
Q

afferent neurons

A

transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain.

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10
Q

efferent neurons

A

transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.

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11
Q

interneurons

A

: found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the three.
 Found in the brain and spinal cord and are linked to reflexive behavior.
 Reflex arcs: neural circuits that control reflexive behavior.
• Ex: step on a nail: sensory neurons  signal up spinal cord  sensory neurons connect with interneurons, these relay pain impulses up to the brain and they also send signals to muscles in the legs which causes the individual to move. Original sensory info still makes its way to the brain but by the time it arrives the foot is already moved.

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12
Q

reflex arcs

A

neural circuits that control reflexive behavior.
• Ex: step on a nail: sensory neurons  signal up spinal cord  sensory neurons connect with interneurons, these relay pain impulses up to the brain and they also send signals to muscles in the legs which causes the individual to move. Original sensory info still makes its way to the brain but by the time it arrives the foot is already moved.

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13
Q

What are the two primary components of the nervous system

A

central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

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14
Q

What makes up the central nervous system

A

composed of the brain and spinal cord

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15
Q

What makes up the peripheral nervous system

A

made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord, including all 31 spinal nerves and the 12 cranial nerves.
 Olfactory and optic nerves (cranial nerves I and II) are outgrowths of the CNS but are still considered the PNS.

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16
Q

what are the components of the peripheral nervous system

A

somatic and automatic NS

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17
Q

What are the components of the autonomic NS

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic NS

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18
Q

Draw overall diagram of all breakdowns of the NS

A

Figure 1.1 Psych

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19
Q

somatics NS

A

consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles. Sensory through afferent fibers, motor through efferent fibers.

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20
Q

Autonomic NS

A

regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions (involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands ). Also regulated body temperature (sweating and piloerection). Automatic.

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21
Q

The parasympathetic NS and sympathetic NS are ____ of each other

A

antagonistic

sympathetic: fight or flight
parasympathetic: rest and digest

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22
Q

parasympathetic NS

A

Acetylcholine is NT responsible

regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions (involuntary muscles). Also regulated body temperature. Automatic.

constricts pupils, stimulates flow of saliva, constricts bronchi (less air flow), slows heartbeat, stimulates peristalsis and secretion, stimulates bile release, contracts bladder

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23
Q

sympathetic NS

A

Adrenaline and noradrenaline

activated by stress
o Mild stressors to emergencies.
o Associated with rage and fear, fight or flight reactions.
o Increases heart rate

dilates pupils, inhibits salivation, relaxes bronchi, accelerates heartbeat, stimulates sweating and piloerection, inhibits peristalsis and secretion, stimulates glucose production and release, secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline inhibits bladder contraction, stimulates orgasm.

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24
Q

Meninges

A

thick sheath of connective tissue that covers the brain.
o Protect brain, keep it anchored in the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid.
o 3 layers:
 Dura mater: most exterior
 Arachnoid mater: medial
 Pia mater: most interior

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25
Q

What are the layers going from skin to brain

A

skin, periosteum, bone, dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater, brain.

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26
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

the aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest

o Produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles (internal cavities) of the brain.

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27
Q

What are the 3 subdivisions of the brain

A

hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

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28
Q

Complex functions are located ______ in the brain while basic functions are located _____

A

higher up

lower down

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29
Q

Hind brain and midbrain developed ______, make up the ______. Next the ____ developed with the ________. Lastly, the _____ developed.

A

first, brainstem,

forebrain, limbic system

cerebral cortex

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30
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the most recent evolutionary development, the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres, associated with higher level control (long term planning and problem solving).

it is the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres.

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31
Q

limbic system

A

(group of neural structures associated with emotion and memory, aggression, pain, fear, pleasure

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32
Q

What structures make up the forebrain

A

cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus

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33
Q

what structures make up the midbrain

A

inferior and superior colliculi

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34
Q

what structures make up the hindbrain

A

cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation

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35
Q

cerebral cortex function

A

complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes

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36
Q

basal ganglia function

A

smooth movement and postural stability

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37
Q

limbic system function

A

emotion and memory

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38
Q

thalamus function

A

sensory relay station
relays all senses except for smell
transmits the info to the appropriate part of the cerebral cortex

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39
Q

hypothalamus function

A

hunger and thirst; emotion

homeostatic functions, emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior

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40
Q

inferior and superior colliculi function

A

sensorimotor reflexes

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41
Q

cerebellum function

A

refines motor movements

help maintain posture, balance, and to coordinate body movements.

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42
Q

medulla oblongata function

A 
vital functioning (breathing and digestion)
breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
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43
Q

reticular formation function

A

arousal and alertness

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44
Q

Describe development of the brain

A

First, there is the neural tube which forms into the forebrain, hindbrain, and midbrain.

Forebrain (prosencephalon): telencephalon and diencephalon
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Hindbrain (rhombencephalon): metencephalon and myelencephalon

Spinal cord is at very base

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45
Q

Describe the hindbrain and the other name for it

A

rhombencephalon
o Located where the brain meets the spinal cord
o Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and walking.
o During development, divides:
 Myelencephalon:
• Medulla oblongta: responsible for regulating of vital functions (breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure)
 Metencephalon:
• Pons: lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
• Cerebellum: top of the hindbrain, mushrooms out of the back of the pons. Helps maintain posture and balance and coordination of body movements.
o Alcohol impairs it.

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46
Q

Describe the midbrain and the other name for it

A

mesencephalon

o Receives sensory and motor info from the rest of the body.
o Involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli
o Colliculi are located here:
 Superior colliculus: visual sensory input
 Inferior colliculus: auditory sensory input

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47
Q

Describe the forebrain and the other name for it

A

prosencephalon

o Complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes.
o Human behavior, emotion, and memory.
o Divides to form:
 Telencephalon: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system
 Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland

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48
Q

What structures are part of the myelencephalon

A

medulla oblongta

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49
Q

what structures are part of the metencephalon

A

pons and cerebellum

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50
Q

superior colliculus

A

visual sensory input

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51
Q

inferior colliculus

A

auditory sensory input

reflexes such as those to a loud sound

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52
Q

what structures are in the telencephalon

A

cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system

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53
Q

what structures are in the diencephalon

A

thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland

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54
Q

neuropsychology

A

the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.
 Used by researchers and in clinical settings.

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55
Q

why are brain lesions messy to use to study the brain

A

they can span multiple brain regions, so it is really difficult to attribute specific impairments to a specific brain region.

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56
Q

what can be used to study brain lesions

A

lab animals.

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57
Q

what can be used to make certain electrons fire so they can be studied

A

electrodes: neurons will fire without stimulus

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58
Q

cortical maps

A

mapping of specific areas of the brain that relate to certain responses.

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59
Q

electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

used to study electrical activity of large groups of neurons, involves placing several electrodes on the scalp  can be noninvasive

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60
Q

Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

A

detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain.
 Relies on the assumption that if a specific area of the brain is active that more blood will flow to that region.
 Noninvasive, patient inhales harmless radioactive gas, then special device detects it in bloodstream.

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61
Q

computed tomography (CT)

A

multiple X-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue.

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62
Q

Positive emission tomography (PET)

A

a radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed in the body, and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged

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63
Q

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body.

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64
Q

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

uses the same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow. Specifically, helpful for monitoring neural activity.

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65
Q

thalamus

A

Serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory impulses. Receives signals and then transmits them to the rest of the cerebral cortex.

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66
Q

hypothalamus

A

feeding, fighting, flighting, sexual function

o Homeostatic functions (metabolism, temperature, and water balance), emotional experiences during high arousal states (aggressive and sexual), controls endocrine and autonomic NS function. Signals to rest of the body to fix homeostasis. Also is the primary regulator of the ANS.
o Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): detects when the body needs more food. If you destroy the LH, mice will not eat unless force fed, cannot sense hunger.
o Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): satiety center, provides signals to stop eating. If you destroy the VMH, mice become obese.
o Anterior hypothalamus: controls sexual behavior. Stimulate it in mice, will mount anything. Also important for sleep and body temperature.

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67
Q

lateral hypothalamus function

A

detects when the body needs more food. If you destroy the LH, mice will not eat unless force fed, cannot sense hunger.

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68
Q

ventromedial hypothalamus function

A

satiety center, provides signals to stop eating. If you destroy the VMH, mice become obese.

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69
Q

anterior hypothalamus

A

controls sexual behavior. Stimulate it in mice, will mount anything. Also important for sleep and body temperature.

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70
Q

posterior pituitary gland function

A

comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release of the hypothalamic hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) and oxytocin.
o ADH: tells the kidneys how much water to keep.
o Oxytocin: love hormone, also used during child birth

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71
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin

A

hormone

tells the kidneys how much water to keep.

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72
Q

oxytocin

A

hormone

love hormone, also used during child birth

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73
Q

Pineal gland function

A

biological rhythms. Secretes melatonin (regulates circadian rhythms). Directly receives signals from the sunlight. Increase melatonin, increase sleepiness.

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74
Q

melatonin

A

hormone
regulates circadian rhythms
increase melatonin, increase sleepiness

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75
Q

basal ganglia function

A

middle of the brain, coordinate muscle movement as they receive info from the cortex and relay this info (via extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and spinal cord.
o Extrapyramidal system: gather info about body position and carries this info to the CNS but does not function directly through motor neurons.
o Make movements smooth and posture steady.
o Parkinson’s disease: chronic destruction of part of the basal ganglia. Jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors.

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76
Q

extrapyramidal system

A

basal ganglia

gather info about body position and carries this info to the CNS but does not function directly through motor neurons.

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77
Q

pyramidal system

A

basal ganglia
consists of upper motor neurons extending from the cortex to the brainstem or spinal cord
pathway from cortex to muscle

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78
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

chronic destruction of part of the basal ganglia. Jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors.

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79
Q

Limbic system

A

comprised of structures looping around the middle of the brain. Associated with learning and memory.
o Septal nuclei: one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
o Amygdala: defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear and rage)
o Hippocampus: learning and memory processes. Form long term memories and redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex.
 Fornix: long projection used by the hippocampus to communicate with other portions of the limbic system.
 Anterograde amnesia: not able to establish new long-term memories, but memories for events that occurred before the brain injury are usually intact.
 Retrograde amnesia: memory loss of the events that occurred before brain injury.

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80
Q

septal nuclei function

A

limbic system

one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain

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81
Q

amygdala function

A

limbic system

defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear and rage)

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82
Q

hippocampus function

A

limbic system
learning and memory processes. Form long term memories and redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex.
 Fornix: long projection used by the hippocampus to communicate with other portions of the limbic system.
 Anterograde amnesia: not able to establish new long-term memories, but memories for events that occurred before the brain injury are usually intact.
 Retrograde amnesia: memory loss of the events that occurred before brain injury.

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83
Q

fornix function

A

hippocampus

long projection used by the hippocampus to communicate with other portions of the limbic system.

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84
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

not able to establish new long-term memories, but memories for events that occurred before the brain injury are usually intact.

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85
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

memory loss of the events that occurred before brain injury.

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86
Q

cerebral cortex

A

has gyri and sulci

Cerebrum: both gray and white matter, while the cerebral cortex is just gray (cortex is outside)

87
Q

4 lobes of cerebral cortex and locations of them

A

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal.

88
Q

gyri

A

smooth bumps

89
Q

sulci

A

smooth folds

90
Q

cerebrum

A

both gray and white matter, while the cerebral cortex is just gray (cortex is outside)

divided into the 4 lobes

91
Q

What are the two regions of the frontal lobe

A

prefrontal cortex and primary motor cortex

92
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

frontal lobe
manages executive function by supervising and directing other brain regions. Regulates perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning.
o Is an Association area:
o Lesion to this area results in an individual lacking control of their behavior.

93
Q

primary motor cortex

A

frontal lobe
located on the precentral gyrus (just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes).
o Initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord to muscles.
o Motor homunculus: the neurons in the motor cortex are arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected.
 Finer movements require more space in the cortex.

94
Q

association area

A

area of the brain that integrates input from diverse brain regions (prefrontal cortex)

95
Q

Projection area

A

performs rudimentary or simple perceptual or motor tasks (Ex: visual cortex or motor cortex)

96
Q

Describe four lobes of the cerebrum and their basic functions

A

frontal lobe: executive function
parietal lobe: touch, temperature, and pain
occipital lobe: vision
temporal lobe: hearing

97
Q

central sulcus

A

separates the frontal from the parietal lobe

98
Q

broca’s area

A

frontal lobe
 Broca’s area: speech production
• Usually found in the left hemisphere.

99
Q

motor homunculus

A

frontal lobe
the neurons in the motor cortex are arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected.
 Finer movements require more space in the cortex

100
Q

Describe the parietal lobe

A

Touch, temperature and pain
 Somatosensory cortex is on the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus).
• Somatosensory info processing.
• Destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
 Central region of the parietal lobe is important for spatial processing and manipulation.

101
Q

location of precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus

A

just in front of and just behind the central sulcus

102
Q

Describe the occipital lobe

A

Contains the visual cortex (striate cortex)

Also involved in learning and motor control

103
Q

Describe the temporal lobe

A

Auditory cortex: primary site of sound processing
Wernicke’s area: language reception and comprehension.
Memory processing, emotion, and language.

104
Q

where is the visual cortex

A

occipital lobe

105
Q

where is the auditory cortex

A

temporal lobe

106
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

temporal lobe

language reception and comprehension.

107
Q

contralateral communication

A

one side of the brain (cerebral hemisphere) communicates with the opposite side of the body

108
Q

ipsilateral communicaiton

A

one side of the brain (cerebral hemisphere) communicates with the same side of the body.

109
Q

dominant hemisphere

A

the one that is more heavily stimulated during language reception and production.
• Typically the left (but can be the right).
• Primarily analytic in function, well-suited for managing tasks. Language, logic, and math.

110
Q

nondominant hemisphere

A

associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing.
• Emotional tone of language rather than content.

111
Q

compare dominant and nondominant hemisphere for visual, auditory, language, movement, and spatial processes

A

letters/word vs. faces
language-related sounds vs. music
speech, reading, writing, arithmetic vs. emotions
Movement: dominant : complex voluntary movement
Spatial processes: nondominant: geometry, sense of direction

112
Q

corpus collosum

A

connects and shares info between the two cerebral hemispheres.

113
Q

speech shadowing

A

used to research stuttering and speech perception: tests ability to listen to sounds that are coming into one ear rather than the other when sounds are played into both. This tests functioning of the temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and the frontal cortex.

114
Q

neurostransmitters (list 9)

A

a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure (over 100 in total)

acetylcholine
epinephrine and norepinephrine 
dopamine
serotonin 
GABA and Glycine
Glutamate
endorphins
115
Q

acetylcholine

A

NT
voluntary muscle control, parasympathetic NS, attention, altertness

Peripheral NS: transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
-parasympathetic: used by large portion
-sympathetic: in ganglia and for innervating sweat glands
Central NS: linked to attention and arousal
Loss of cholinergic neurons connecting with the hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer’s disease.

can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the receptors present

116
Q

epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

fight-or-flight responses, wakefulness, alertness

 Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) control alertness and wakefulness. Sympathetic NS fight or flight.
• Nor: local level as neurotransmitter, associated with anxiety or depression if there is too much or too little
• Epi: systemically as hormone released from the adrenal medulla.

117
Q

epinephrine

A

NT
adrenaline
systemically as hormone

118
Q

norepinephrine

A

noradrenaline

locally as NT

119
Q

dopamine

A

NT
smooth movements, postural stability
 High amounts are found in the basal ganglia (which is responsible for these smooth movements)
 Schizophrenia and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: too much or hypersensitivity to dopamine results in hallucinations, delusions, or agitation. Does not account for everything about the disease.
 Parkinson’s disease: loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia

120
Q

schizophrenia

A

too much or hypersensitivity to dopamine results in hallucinations, delusions, or agitation. Does not account for everything about the disease.

121
Q

parkinson’s disease

A

loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia

122
Q

serotonin

A

NT
mood, sleep, eating, dreaming
 It is also related to the catecholamines.
 Regulates mood (depression, undersupply, and mania, oversupply), eating, sleeping, and dreaming.

123
Q

serotonin vs. melatonin

A

serotonin: awake, energy, happy, daylight (NT)
melatonin: night, sleepy (hormone)

124
Q

GABA and glycine

A

NT
‘brain ‘stabilization’
 GABA: gamma-aminobutyric acid: stabilizes neural activity in the brain. Hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.
 Glycine: inhibitory neurotransmitter (also amino acid) increase chlorine reflux into the neuron, similar to GABA.

125
Q

GABA NT

A

stabilizes neural activity in the brain

126
Q

Glycine

A

inhibitory NT, causes chlorine reflux into neuron

amino acid

127
Q

glutamate

A

NT
brain excitation, excitatory NT
amino acid

128
Q

endorphins

A

natural painkillers. they are a type of neuromodulator and their effects are slower but longer lasting

129
Q

catecholamines

A

epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine all play a role in the experience of emotions.

These NTs are also known as monoamines or biogenic amines.

130
Q

What is the other communication system in the body along with the nervous system?

A

endocrine system

131
Q

Hormones

A

chemical messengers of the endocrine system

o Slower than the NS, travel to target through the bloodstream.

132
Q

hypophyseal portal

A

links the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland and allows the hypothalamus to control the gland.

133
Q

what is the pituitary gland and what does it consist of?

A

master gland, located at the base of the brain
master, releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands, but it itself is controlled by the hypothalamus. Activates endocrine glands throughout the body via the bloodstream.

134
Q

anterior pituitary

A

master, releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands, but it itself is controlled by the hypothalamus. Activates endocrine glands throughout the body via the bloodstream.

FSH, LH, ACTH, prolactin, endorphines, GH

135
Q

posterior pituitary

A

ADH and oxytocin

activated by direct NT from hypothalamus

136
Q

anterior vs. posterior pituitary

A

anterior produces and secretes its own hormones

posterior stores and releases the hormones created by the hypothalamus.

137
Q

what are the two parts of the adrenal glands

A

adrenal medulla

adrenal cortex

138
Q

adrenal medulla

A

releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (catecholamines) and dopamine

139
Q

adrenal cortex

A

corticosteroid hormones, including stress hormone cortisol. Also produces sex hormones such as testosterone and estrogen.

Adrenal Cortex: Corticosteroids

  1. Glucocorticoids cortisone + cortisol
  2. Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone
  3. Cortical sex hormones: androgens and estrogen
140
Q

gonads

A

sex glands of the body
o Ovaries in females and testes in males
o Produce sex hormones in higher concentrations mating behavior, sexual function, aggressive behavior
o Libido: sexual desire

141
Q

behaviors can be passed down in a _____ and to _______

A

species

offspring

142
Q

innate behavior

A

genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience.

143
Q

learned behavior

A

not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment

144
Q

adaptive value

A

the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection.

145
Q

what is nature vs. nurture?

A

how much of an individual’s behavior is innate (genetic makeup) or learned (environment)?

146
Q

define nature

A

hereditary, the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior.

147
Q

define nurture

A

influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior.

148
Q

environmental factors can influence genetic factors if you are exposed to them

A

addictive behavior and drugs or alcohol

149
Q

Name 3 experiments to determine degree of genetic influence on individual differences

A

family studies
twin studies
adoption studies

150
Q

family studies

A

rely on assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals. Then researchers compare rates of a given trait among family members compared to unrelated individuals in society.
 Ex: brothers or sons of schizophrenic family members are more likely to develop it.
 Limited because families share both genetics and environmental conditions.

151
Q

twin studies

A

compare rates between twins
 Monozygotic (MZ, identical) twins and dizygotic (DZ, fraternal) twins.
 Concordance rates: the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait
 MZ twins are more genetically related than DZ twins but both live in same environment.
 Compare twins raised together and those raised apart.

152
Q

adoptions studies

A

compares similarities between biological relatives and the adopted child to adoptive relatives and the adopted child.

153
Q

monozygotic twins

A

identical (one zygote split into 2)

154
Q

dizygotic twins

A

fraternal (2 different zygotes)

155
Q

concordance rates

A

the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait.

156
Q

neurulation

A

the ectoderm overlying the notochord begin to furrow, forming the neural groove, which is surrounded by two neural folds.

157
Q

neural crest cells

A

: at the leading edge of the neural fold
o Will become dorsal route ganglia, melanocytes (pigment-producing cells), and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid.

158
Q

neural tube

A

formed when the furrow closes. Will ultimately form the CNS
o Alar plate: part of the neural tube, differentiates into sensory neurons
o Basal plate: part of the neural tube, differentiates into motor neurons.
o Invaginates on itself to form the brain.

159
Q

alar plate

A

part of the neural tube, differentiates into sensory neurons

160
Q

basal plate

A

part of the neural tube, differentiates into motor neurons.

161
Q

umbilical cord

A

attaches the fetus to the uterine wall and placenta.
o Placenta: transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother
 Many viruses and bacteria can also cross the placenta.
 Pharmaceutical products can cause problems in development
 Environmental factors: exposure to smoking, alcohol, x-rays, etc. can also have large impacts.

162
Q

placenta

A

Placenta: transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother
 Many viruses and bacteria can also cross the placenta.
 Pharmaceutical products can cause problems in development
 Environmental factors: exposure to smoking, alcohol, x-rays, etc. can also have large impacts.

163
Q

reflex

A

a behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input.

164
Q

Name the 4 primitive reflexes

A

rooting reflex
moro reflex
babinksi reflex
grasping reflex

165
Q

primitive reflexes

A

infants have them but they disappear with age

rooting reflex
moro reflex
babinksi reflex
grasping reflex

166
Q

rooting reflex

A

primitive reflexes

the automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek—such as a nipple during feeding.

167
Q

moro reflex

A

primitive reflexes
one of the reflexes used to determine if an infant has proper neurological development. Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting them and crying.
• Should disappear at 4 months, asymmetry is sign of neuromuscular problems.

168
Q

babinksi reflex

A

primitive reflexes

causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

169
Q

grasping reflex

A

primitive reflexes

occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand.

170
Q

gross motor skills

A

incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole-body motion. Ex: sitting, crawling, and walking

171
Q

fine motor skills

A

the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement. Ex: drawing, catching, waving.

172
Q

the _____ is the center of the infants world

A

parental figure

173
Q

separation anxiety

A

fear of being separated from the parental figure

Develops at one year

174
Q

stranger anxiety

A

a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals. Develops at 7 months.

175
Q

parallel play

A

children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior
• Form different relationships with peers, sex dependent too, depending on age.

Age 2

176
Q

development milestones and patterns

A

specific physical and motor, social, and language development steps that infants should reach by certain ages.
o Physical and motor: gross motor skills progress from head and center of body down/out
o Social skills go from parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented.
o Language becomes more complex and structured.

177
Q

ablation or extripation

A

surgically removing parts of the brain and observing behavioral consequences

178
Q

functionalism

A

Functionalism: a system of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.

Formed through the theories of William James

179
Q

role of interneurons in reflex arc

A

Ex: step on a nail: sensory neurons  signal up spinal cord  sensory neurons connect with interneurons, these relay pain impulses up to the brain and they also send signals to muscles in the legs which causes the individual to move. Original sensory info still makes its way to the brain but by the time it arrives the foot is already moved.

180
Q

The olfactory and optic nerves are part of the _____

A

peripheral NS

even though they are technically outgrowths of the CNS.

181
Q

the main role of the parasympthetic NS is to ____

A

conserve energy

182
Q

the sympathetic NS redistributes blood to the ______ while the parasympathetic NS redistributes blood to the _____

A

locomotor muscles

gut

183
Q

pons

A

lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla

184
Q

there are no ___ receptors in the brain

A

pain

185
Q

Methods to studying relationship of brain regions and behaviors

A
  1. brain lesions in lab animals (extirpation)
  2. electrodes that shut down neurons
  3. stimulate and record brain activity (cortical maps)
  4. electrodes measure brain activity (single cell and very sensitive or EEG which is larger, more broad)
186
Q

EEG vs. single-cell electrode recording

A

specificity of the recordings

187
Q

what is the organization of the lobes of the brain

A

F-P-O-T

188
Q

the neurons in the motor cortex are organized _____ according to the parts of the body to which they are connected

A

systematically

189
Q

muscles that require _______ take up additional space in the cortex relative to their size in the body

A

finer motor control than others

190
Q

which is the dominant hemisphere for most people and does this affect the side of the brain of Broca’s area?

A

left hemisphere is dominant for most people (despite people people left or right handed)
no, Broca’s is found in the left hemisphere mostly

191
Q

the central region of the parietal lobe is associated with _____

A

spatial processing and manipulation

Ex: orient yourself and other objects in 3D space

192
Q

what is another name for the visual cortex?

A

the striate cortex

193
Q

motor neurons on the left side of the brain activate movements on the ______

A

right side of the body

194
Q

is hearing ipsilateral or contralateral communication?

A

both

195
Q

for an individual with a cut corpus callosum, objects felt in the left hand project to the right hemisphere of the brain ________

A

could not be named because the language function is in the left hemisphere.

196
Q

basal ganglia vs. cerebellum

A

basal ganglia: smooth movement

cerebellum: coordinated movement

197
Q

frontal lobe

A

executive function, impulse control, long-term planning (prefrontal cortex), motor function, (primary motor cortex), speech production (Broca’s area)

198
Q

parietal lobe

A

sensation of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain (somatosensory cortex); spatial processing, orientation, and manipulation

199
Q

occipital lobe

A

visual processing

200
Q

temporal lobe

A

sound processing (auditory cortex), speech perception (Wernicke’s area), memory, and emotion (limbic system)

201
Q

epinephrine circulates ________ while norepinephrine acts at the _____ level in the brain

A

systemically

local

202
Q

what do glycine and glutamate have in common and how do they differ?

A

they are both one of the twenty proteinogenic amino acids and they can both function as NTs
glycine is inhibitory NT
glutamate is excitatory NT

203
Q

how do neuromodulators (neuropeptides) compare to neurotransmitters

A

they act on the postsynaptic cell in a more complex way and their effects are slower but longer lasting

204
Q

endorphins vs. enkephalins

A

both are morphine-like natural painkillers. endorphins act in the brainstem while enkephalins act in the spinal cord.

205
Q

where are the adrenal glands located?

A

the adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys

206
Q

sample and control group for different studies of nature vs. nurture

A 
family study
-sample group: family of genetically related individuals 
-control: unrelated individuals
twin study 
-sample: monozygotic twins 
-control: dizygotic twins 
adoption study 
-sample: adoptive family 
-control: biological family to adopted child
207
Q

somites

A

give rise to the cells that form the vertebrae and ribs, the dermis of the dorsal skin, the skeletal muscles of the back, and the skeletal muscles of the body wall and limbs.

208
Q

a variety of external influences can have ______ on the development of the fetus

A

deleterious

209
Q

Give a brief overview of the social developments of children through their teen years

A

7 months-1 year: stranger anxiety and separation anxiety.
1-2 years: play goes from solidarity to onlooker
2 years: parallel play
3 years: awareness of gender identity, engages in sex-typed play, and knows his or her full name
5 years: conformity to peers and romantic feelings
6-12: friends circles are same sex
teenage: rebel, cross-gender friendships, sexual identity, sexual relationships

210
Q

the cells at the leading edge of the neural folds are

A

neural crest cells

211
Q

in the reflex arc, interneurons are located in the ____

A

spinal cord

212
Q

when dribbling a basketball, the hindbrain is responsible for _____

A

motor coordination and balance

213
Q

Do the adrenal glands release testosterone and estrogen in both males and females?

A

yes, release both in both.

214
Q

schizophrenia is associated with _____

A

high levels of dopamine

MCAT Psych (13 decks)

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