MCAT Psych #1 Flashcards
Franz Gall (1759-1828)
o Behavior, intellect and personality may be linked to brain anatomy
o Phrenology: brain area for trait expands for well-developed trait
Measure psychological attributes by feeling or measuring the skull FALSE
Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)
o Studied the function of major sections of the brain
o Extirpation or ablation: remove parts of the brain and observe behavioral consequences
Specific parts have specific functions, remove one part and it weakens the whole thing.
William James (1842-1910)
o How the mind functions in adapting to the environment
o Functionalism: a system of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.
John Dewey (1859-1952)
o Also important in functionalism
o Reflex arc, breaks the process of reacting to stimulus into discrete parts.
o Psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it adapts to environment
Paul Broca (1824-1880)
o Examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage physiology
Specific functional impairments can be linked with specific brain lesions.
o Broca’s area: man unable to talk cause of lesion in Broca’s area (left side of the brain)
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
o First to measure the speed of a nerve impulse. Nerve impulses in terms of reaction time psychology mix with natural sciences.
Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952)
o Inferred the existence of synapses. He thought synapses were an electrical process but we now know that they are a chemical process.
What are the types of neurons in the nervous system?
sensory neurons (afferent neurons) motor neurons (efferent neurons) interneurons
afferent neurons
transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain.
efferent neurons
transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.
interneurons
: found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the three.
Found in the brain and spinal cord and are linked to reflexive behavior.
Reflex arcs: neural circuits that control reflexive behavior.
• Ex: step on a nail: sensory neurons signal up spinal cord sensory neurons connect with interneurons, these relay pain impulses up to the brain and they also send signals to muscles in the legs which causes the individual to move. Original sensory info still makes its way to the brain but by the time it arrives the foot is already moved.
reflex arcs
neural circuits that control reflexive behavior.
• Ex: step on a nail: sensory neurons signal up spinal cord sensory neurons connect with interneurons, these relay pain impulses up to the brain and they also send signals to muscles in the legs which causes the individual to move. Original sensory info still makes its way to the brain but by the time it arrives the foot is already moved.
What are the two primary components of the nervous system
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
What makes up the central nervous system
composed of the brain and spinal cord
What makes up the peripheral nervous system
made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord, including all 31 spinal nerves and the 12 cranial nerves.
Olfactory and optic nerves (cranial nerves I and II) are outgrowths of the CNS but are still considered the PNS.
what are the components of the peripheral nervous system
somatic and automatic NS
What are the components of the autonomic NS
sympathetic and parasympathetic NS
Draw overall diagram of all breakdowns of the NS
Figure 1.1 Psych
somatics NS
consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles. Sensory through afferent fibers, motor through efferent fibers.
Autonomic NS
regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions (involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands ). Also regulated body temperature (sweating and piloerection). Automatic.
The parasympathetic NS and sympathetic NS are ____ of each other
antagonistic
sympathetic: fight or flight
parasympathetic: rest and digest
parasympathetic NS
Acetylcholine is NT responsible
regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions (involuntary muscles). Also regulated body temperature. Automatic.
constricts pupils, stimulates flow of saliva, constricts bronchi (less air flow), slows heartbeat, stimulates peristalsis and secretion, stimulates bile release, contracts bladder
sympathetic NS
Adrenaline and noradrenaline
activated by stress
o Mild stressors to emergencies.
o Associated with rage and fear, fight or flight reactions.
o Increases heart rate
dilates pupils, inhibits salivation, relaxes bronchi, accelerates heartbeat, stimulates sweating and piloerection, inhibits peristalsis and secretion, stimulates glucose production and release, secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline inhibits bladder contraction, stimulates orgasm.
Meninges
thick sheath of connective tissue that covers the brain.
o Protect brain, keep it anchored in the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid.
o 3 layers:
Dura mater: most exterior
Arachnoid mater: medial
Pia mater: most interior
What are the layers going from skin to brain
skin, periosteum, bone, dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater, brain.
cerebrospinal fluid
the aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest
o Produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles (internal cavities) of the brain.
What are the 3 subdivisions of the brain
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
Complex functions are located ______ in the brain while basic functions are located _____
higher up
lower down
Hind brain and midbrain developed ______, make up the ______. Next the ____ developed with the ________. Lastly, the _____ developed.
first, brainstem,
forebrain, limbic system
cerebral cortex
cerebral cortex
the most recent evolutionary development, the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres, associated with higher level control (long term planning and problem solving).
it is the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres.
limbic system
(group of neural structures associated with emotion and memory, aggression, pain, fear, pleasure
What structures make up the forebrain
cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus
what structures make up the midbrain
inferior and superior colliculi
what structures make up the hindbrain
cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation
cerebral cortex function
complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
basal ganglia function
smooth movement and postural stability
limbic system function
emotion and memory
thalamus function
sensory relay station
relays all senses except for smell
transmits the info to the appropriate part of the cerebral cortex
hypothalamus function
hunger and thirst; emotion
homeostatic functions, emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior
inferior and superior colliculi function
sensorimotor reflexes
cerebellum function
refines motor movements
help maintain posture, balance, and to coordinate body movements.
medulla oblongata function
vital functioning (breathing and digestion) breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
reticular formation function
arousal and alertness
Describe development of the brain
First, there is the neural tube which forms into the forebrain, hindbrain, and midbrain.
Forebrain (prosencephalon): telencephalon and diencephalon
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Hindbrain (rhombencephalon): metencephalon and myelencephalon
Spinal cord is at very base
Describe the hindbrain and the other name for it
rhombencephalon
o Located where the brain meets the spinal cord
o Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and walking.
o During development, divides:
Myelencephalon:
• Medulla oblongta: responsible for regulating of vital functions (breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure)
Metencephalon:
• Pons: lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
• Cerebellum: top of the hindbrain, mushrooms out of the back of the pons. Helps maintain posture and balance and coordination of body movements.
o Alcohol impairs it.
Describe the midbrain and the other name for it
mesencephalon
o Receives sensory and motor info from the rest of the body.
o Involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli
o Colliculi are located here:
Superior colliculus: visual sensory input
Inferior colliculus: auditory sensory input
Describe the forebrain and the other name for it
prosencephalon
o Complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes.
o Human behavior, emotion, and memory.
o Divides to form:
Telencephalon: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system
Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland
What structures are part of the myelencephalon
medulla oblongta
what structures are part of the metencephalon
pons and cerebellum
superior colliculus
visual sensory input
inferior colliculus
auditory sensory input
reflexes such as those to a loud sound
what structures are in the telencephalon
cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system
what structures are in the diencephalon
thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland
neuropsychology
the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.
Used by researchers and in clinical settings.
why are brain lesions messy to use to study the brain
they can span multiple brain regions, so it is really difficult to attribute specific impairments to a specific brain region.
what can be used to study brain lesions
lab animals.
what can be used to make certain electrons fire so they can be studied
electrodes: neurons will fire without stimulus
cortical maps
mapping of specific areas of the brain that relate to certain responses.
electroencephalogram (EEG)
used to study electrical activity of large groups of neurons, involves placing several electrodes on the scalp can be noninvasive
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain.
Relies on the assumption that if a specific area of the brain is active that more blood will flow to that region.
Noninvasive, patient inhales harmless radioactive gas, then special device detects it in bloodstream.
computed tomography (CT)
multiple X-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue.
Positive emission tomography (PET)
a radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed in the body, and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
uses the same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow. Specifically, helpful for monitoring neural activity.
thalamus
Serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory impulses. Receives signals and then transmits them to the rest of the cerebral cortex.
hypothalamus
feeding, fighting, flighting, sexual function
o Homeostatic functions (metabolism, temperature, and water balance), emotional experiences during high arousal states (aggressive and sexual), controls endocrine and autonomic NS function. Signals to rest of the body to fix homeostasis. Also is the primary regulator of the ANS.
o Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): detects when the body needs more food. If you destroy the LH, mice will not eat unless force fed, cannot sense hunger.
o Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): satiety center, provides signals to stop eating. If you destroy the VMH, mice become obese.
o Anterior hypothalamus: controls sexual behavior. Stimulate it in mice, will mount anything. Also important for sleep and body temperature.
lateral hypothalamus function
detects when the body needs more food. If you destroy the LH, mice will not eat unless force fed, cannot sense hunger.
ventromedial hypothalamus function
satiety center, provides signals to stop eating. If you destroy the VMH, mice become obese.
anterior hypothalamus
controls sexual behavior. Stimulate it in mice, will mount anything. Also important for sleep and body temperature.
posterior pituitary gland function
comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release of the hypothalamic hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) and oxytocin.
o ADH: tells the kidneys how much water to keep.
o Oxytocin: love hormone, also used during child birth
Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin
hormone
tells the kidneys how much water to keep.
oxytocin
hormone
love hormone, also used during child birth
Pineal gland function
biological rhythms. Secretes melatonin (regulates circadian rhythms). Directly receives signals from the sunlight. Increase melatonin, increase sleepiness.
melatonin
hormone
regulates circadian rhythms
increase melatonin, increase sleepiness
basal ganglia function
middle of the brain, coordinate muscle movement as they receive info from the cortex and relay this info (via extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and spinal cord.
o Extrapyramidal system: gather info about body position and carries this info to the CNS but does not function directly through motor neurons.
o Make movements smooth and posture steady.
o Parkinson’s disease: chronic destruction of part of the basal ganglia. Jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors.
extrapyramidal system
basal ganglia
gather info about body position and carries this info to the CNS but does not function directly through motor neurons.
pyramidal system
basal ganglia
consists of upper motor neurons extending from the cortex to the brainstem or spinal cord
pathway from cortex to muscle
Parkinson’s disease
chronic destruction of part of the basal ganglia. Jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors.
Limbic system
comprised of structures looping around the middle of the brain. Associated with learning and memory.
o Septal nuclei: one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
o Amygdala: defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear and rage)
o Hippocampus: learning and memory processes. Form long term memories and redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex.
Fornix: long projection used by the hippocampus to communicate with other portions of the limbic system.
Anterograde amnesia: not able to establish new long-term memories, but memories for events that occurred before the brain injury are usually intact.
Retrograde amnesia: memory loss of the events that occurred before brain injury.
septal nuclei function
limbic system
one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
amygdala function
limbic system
defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear and rage)
hippocampus function
limbic system
learning and memory processes. Form long term memories and redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex.
Fornix: long projection used by the hippocampus to communicate with other portions of the limbic system.
Anterograde amnesia: not able to establish new long-term memories, but memories for events that occurred before the brain injury are usually intact.
Retrograde amnesia: memory loss of the events that occurred before brain injury.
fornix function
hippocampus
long projection used by the hippocampus to communicate with other portions of the limbic system.
anterograde amnesia
not able to establish new long-term memories, but memories for events that occurred before the brain injury are usually intact.
retrograde amnesia
memory loss of the events that occurred before brain injury.
cerebral cortex
has gyri and sulci
Cerebrum: both gray and white matter, while the cerebral cortex is just gray (cortex is outside)
4 lobes of cerebral cortex and locations of them
frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal.
gyri
smooth bumps
sulci
smooth folds
cerebrum
both gray and white matter, while the cerebral cortex is just gray (cortex is outside)
divided into the 4 lobes
What are the two regions of the frontal lobe
prefrontal cortex and primary motor cortex
prefrontal cortex
frontal lobe
manages executive function by supervising and directing other brain regions. Regulates perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning.
o Is an Association area:
o Lesion to this area results in an individual lacking control of their behavior.
primary motor cortex
frontal lobe
located on the precentral gyrus (just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes).
o Initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord to muscles.
o Motor homunculus: the neurons in the motor cortex are arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected.
Finer movements require more space in the cortex.
association area
area of the brain that integrates input from diverse brain regions (prefrontal cortex)
Projection area
performs rudimentary or simple perceptual or motor tasks (Ex: visual cortex or motor cortex)
Describe four lobes of the cerebrum and their basic functions
frontal lobe: executive function
parietal lobe: touch, temperature, and pain
occipital lobe: vision
temporal lobe: hearing
central sulcus
separates the frontal from the parietal lobe
broca’s area
frontal lobe
Broca’s area: speech production
• Usually found in the left hemisphere.
motor homunculus
frontal lobe
the neurons in the motor cortex are arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected.
Finer movements require more space in the cortex
Describe the parietal lobe
Touch, temperature and pain
Somatosensory cortex is on the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus).
• Somatosensory info processing.
• Destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
Central region of the parietal lobe is important for spatial processing and manipulation.
location of precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus
just in front of and just behind the central sulcus
Describe the occipital lobe
Contains the visual cortex (striate cortex)
Also involved in learning and motor control
Describe the temporal lobe
Auditory cortex: primary site of sound processing
Wernicke’s area: language reception and comprehension.
Memory processing, emotion, and language.
where is the visual cortex
occipital lobe
where is the auditory cortex
temporal lobe
Wernicke’s area
temporal lobe
language reception and comprehension.
contralateral communication
one side of the brain (cerebral hemisphere) communicates with the opposite side of the body
ipsilateral communicaiton
one side of the brain (cerebral hemisphere) communicates with the same side of the body.
dominant hemisphere
the one that is more heavily stimulated during language reception and production.
• Typically the left (but can be the right).
• Primarily analytic in function, well-suited for managing tasks. Language, logic, and math.
nondominant hemisphere
associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing.
• Emotional tone of language rather than content.
compare dominant and nondominant hemisphere for visual, auditory, language, movement, and spatial processes
letters/word vs. faces
language-related sounds vs. music
speech, reading, writing, arithmetic vs. emotions
Movement: dominant : complex voluntary movement
Spatial processes: nondominant: geometry, sense of direction
corpus collosum
connects and shares info between the two cerebral hemispheres.
speech shadowing
used to research stuttering and speech perception: tests ability to listen to sounds that are coming into one ear rather than the other when sounds are played into both. This tests functioning of the temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and the frontal cortex.
neurostransmitters (list 9)
a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure (over 100 in total)
acetylcholine epinephrine and norepinephrine dopamine serotonin GABA and Glycine Glutamate endorphins
acetylcholine
NT
voluntary muscle control, parasympathetic NS, attention, altertness
Peripheral NS: transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
-parasympathetic: used by large portion
-sympathetic: in ganglia and for innervating sweat glands
Central NS: linked to attention and arousal
Loss of cholinergic neurons connecting with the hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the receptors present
epinephrine and norepinephrine
fight-or-flight responses, wakefulness, alertness
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) control alertness and wakefulness. Sympathetic NS fight or flight.
• Nor: local level as neurotransmitter, associated with anxiety or depression if there is too much or too little
• Epi: systemically as hormone released from the adrenal medulla.
epinephrine
NT
adrenaline
systemically as hormone
norepinephrine
noradrenaline
locally as NT
dopamine
NT
smooth movements, postural stability
High amounts are found in the basal ganglia (which is responsible for these smooth movements)
Schizophrenia and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: too much or hypersensitivity to dopamine results in hallucinations, delusions, or agitation. Does not account for everything about the disease.
Parkinson’s disease: loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia
schizophrenia
too much or hypersensitivity to dopamine results in hallucinations, delusions, or agitation. Does not account for everything about the disease.
parkinson’s disease
loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia
serotonin
NT
mood, sleep, eating, dreaming
It is also related to the catecholamines.
Regulates mood (depression, undersupply, and mania, oversupply), eating, sleeping, and dreaming.
serotonin vs. melatonin
serotonin: awake, energy, happy, daylight (NT)
melatonin: night, sleepy (hormone)
GABA and glycine
NT
‘brain ‘stabilization’
GABA: gamma-aminobutyric acid: stabilizes neural activity in the brain. Hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.
Glycine: inhibitory neurotransmitter (also amino acid) increase chlorine reflux into the neuron, similar to GABA.
GABA NT
stabilizes neural activity in the brain
Glycine
inhibitory NT, causes chlorine reflux into neuron
amino acid
glutamate
NT
brain excitation, excitatory NT
amino acid
endorphins
natural painkillers. they are a type of neuromodulator and their effects are slower but longer lasting
catecholamines
epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine all play a role in the experience of emotions.
These NTs are also known as monoamines or biogenic amines.
What is the other communication system in the body along with the nervous system?
endocrine system
Hormones
chemical messengers of the endocrine system
o Slower than the NS, travel to target through the bloodstream.
hypophyseal portal
links the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland and allows the hypothalamus to control the gland.
what is the pituitary gland and what does it consist of?
master gland, located at the base of the brain
master, releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands, but it itself is controlled by the hypothalamus. Activates endocrine glands throughout the body via the bloodstream.
anterior pituitary
master, releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands, but it itself is controlled by the hypothalamus. Activates endocrine glands throughout the body via the bloodstream.
FSH, LH, ACTH, prolactin, endorphines, GH
posterior pituitary
ADH and oxytocin
activated by direct NT from hypothalamus
anterior vs. posterior pituitary
anterior produces and secretes its own hormones
posterior stores and releases the hormones created by the hypothalamus.
what are the two parts of the adrenal glands
adrenal medulla
adrenal cortex
adrenal medulla
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (catecholamines) and dopamine
adrenal cortex
corticosteroid hormones, including stress hormone cortisol. Also produces sex hormones such as testosterone and estrogen.
Adrenal Cortex: Corticosteroids
- Glucocorticoids cortisone + cortisol
- Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone
- Cortical sex hormones: androgens and estrogen
gonads
sex glands of the body
o Ovaries in females and testes in males
o Produce sex hormones in higher concentrations mating behavior, sexual function, aggressive behavior
o Libido: sexual desire
behaviors can be passed down in a _____ and to _______
species
offspring
innate behavior
genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience.
learned behavior
not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment
adaptive value
the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection.
what is nature vs. nurture?
how much of an individual’s behavior is innate (genetic makeup) or learned (environment)?
define nature
hereditary, the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior.
define nurture
influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior.
environmental factors can influence genetic factors if you are exposed to them
addictive behavior and drugs or alcohol
Name 3 experiments to determine degree of genetic influence on individual differences
family studies
twin studies
adoption studies
family studies
rely on assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals. Then researchers compare rates of a given trait among family members compared to unrelated individuals in society.
Ex: brothers or sons of schizophrenic family members are more likely to develop it.
Limited because families share both genetics and environmental conditions.
twin studies
compare rates between twins
Monozygotic (MZ, identical) twins and dizygotic (DZ, fraternal) twins.
Concordance rates: the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait
MZ twins are more genetically related than DZ twins but both live in same environment.
Compare twins raised together and those raised apart.
adoptions studies
compares similarities between biological relatives and the adopted child to adoptive relatives and the adopted child.
monozygotic twins
identical (one zygote split into 2)
dizygotic twins
fraternal (2 different zygotes)
concordance rates
the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait.
neurulation
the ectoderm overlying the notochord begin to furrow, forming the neural groove, which is surrounded by two neural folds.
neural crest cells
: at the leading edge of the neural fold
o Will become dorsal route ganglia, melanocytes (pigment-producing cells), and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid.
neural tube
formed when the furrow closes. Will ultimately form the CNS
o Alar plate: part of the neural tube, differentiates into sensory neurons
o Basal plate: part of the neural tube, differentiates into motor neurons.
o Invaginates on itself to form the brain.
alar plate
part of the neural tube, differentiates into sensory neurons
basal plate
part of the neural tube, differentiates into motor neurons.
umbilical cord
attaches the fetus to the uterine wall and placenta.
o Placenta: transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother
Many viruses and bacteria can also cross the placenta.
Pharmaceutical products can cause problems in development
Environmental factors: exposure to smoking, alcohol, x-rays, etc. can also have large impacts.
placenta
Placenta: transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother
Many viruses and bacteria can also cross the placenta.
Pharmaceutical products can cause problems in development
Environmental factors: exposure to smoking, alcohol, x-rays, etc. can also have large impacts.
reflex
a behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input.
Name the 4 primitive reflexes
rooting reflex
moro reflex
babinksi reflex
grasping reflex
primitive reflexes
infants have them but they disappear with age
rooting reflex
moro reflex
babinksi reflex
grasping reflex
rooting reflex
primitive reflexes
the automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek—such as a nipple during feeding.
moro reflex
primitive reflexes
one of the reflexes used to determine if an infant has proper neurological development. Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting them and crying.
• Should disappear at 4 months, asymmetry is sign of neuromuscular problems.
babinksi reflex
primitive reflexes
causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
grasping reflex
primitive reflexes
occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand.
gross motor skills
incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole-body motion. Ex: sitting, crawling, and walking
fine motor skills
the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement. Ex: drawing, catching, waving.
the _____ is the center of the infants world
parental figure
separation anxiety
fear of being separated from the parental figure
Develops at one year
stranger anxiety
a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals. Develops at 7 months.
parallel play
children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior
• Form different relationships with peers, sex dependent too, depending on age.
Age 2
development milestones and patterns
specific physical and motor, social, and language development steps that infants should reach by certain ages.
o Physical and motor: gross motor skills progress from head and center of body down/out
o Social skills go from parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented.
o Language becomes more complex and structured.
ablation or extripation
surgically removing parts of the brain and observing behavioral consequences
functionalism
Functionalism: a system of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.
Formed through the theories of William James
role of interneurons in reflex arc
Ex: step on a nail: sensory neurons signal up spinal cord sensory neurons connect with interneurons, these relay pain impulses up to the brain and they also send signals to muscles in the legs which causes the individual to move. Original sensory info still makes its way to the brain but by the time it arrives the foot is already moved.
The olfactory and optic nerves are part of the _____
peripheral NS
even though they are technically outgrowths of the CNS.
the main role of the parasympthetic NS is to ____
conserve energy
the sympathetic NS redistributes blood to the ______ while the parasympathetic NS redistributes blood to the _____
locomotor muscles
gut
pons
lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
there are no ___ receptors in the brain
pain
Methods to studying relationship of brain regions and behaviors
- brain lesions in lab animals (extirpation)
- electrodes that shut down neurons
- stimulate and record brain activity (cortical maps)
- electrodes measure brain activity (single cell and very sensitive or EEG which is larger, more broad)
EEG vs. single-cell electrode recording
specificity of the recordings
what is the organization of the lobes of the brain
F-P-O-T
the neurons in the motor cortex are organized _____ according to the parts of the body to which they are connected
systematically
muscles that require _______ take up additional space in the cortex relative to their size in the body
finer motor control than others
which is the dominant hemisphere for most people and does this affect the side of the brain of Broca’s area?
left hemisphere is dominant for most people (despite people people left or right handed)
no, Broca’s is found in the left hemisphere mostly
the central region of the parietal lobe is associated with _____
spatial processing and manipulation
Ex: orient yourself and other objects in 3D space
what is another name for the visual cortex?
the striate cortex
motor neurons on the left side of the brain activate movements on the ______
right side of the body
is hearing ipsilateral or contralateral communication?
both
for an individual with a cut corpus callosum, objects felt in the left hand project to the right hemisphere of the brain ________
could not be named because the language function is in the left hemisphere.
basal ganglia vs. cerebellum
basal ganglia: smooth movement
cerebellum: coordinated movement
frontal lobe
executive function, impulse control, long-term planning (prefrontal cortex), motor function, (primary motor cortex), speech production (Broca’s area)
parietal lobe
sensation of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain (somatosensory cortex); spatial processing, orientation, and manipulation
occipital lobe
visual processing
temporal lobe
sound processing (auditory cortex), speech perception (Wernicke’s area), memory, and emotion (limbic system)
epinephrine circulates ________ while norepinephrine acts at the _____ level in the brain
systemically
local
what do glycine and glutamate have in common and how do they differ?
they are both one of the twenty proteinogenic amino acids and they can both function as NTs
glycine is inhibitory NT
glutamate is excitatory NT
how do neuromodulators (neuropeptides) compare to neurotransmitters
they act on the postsynaptic cell in a more complex way and their effects are slower but longer lasting
endorphins vs. enkephalins
both are morphine-like natural painkillers. endorphins act in the brainstem while enkephalins act in the spinal cord.
where are the adrenal glands located?
the adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys
sample and control group for different studies of nature vs. nurture
family study -sample group: family of genetically related individuals -control: unrelated individuals twin study -sample: monozygotic twins -control: dizygotic twins adoption study -sample: adoptive family -control: biological family to adopted child
somites
give rise to the cells that form the vertebrae and ribs, the dermis of the dorsal skin, the skeletal muscles of the back, and the skeletal muscles of the body wall and limbs.
a variety of external influences can have ______ on the development of the fetus
deleterious
Give a brief overview of the social developments of children through their teen years
7 months-1 year: stranger anxiety and separation anxiety.
1-2 years: play goes from solidarity to onlooker
2 years: parallel play
3 years: awareness of gender identity, engages in sex-typed play, and knows his or her full name
5 years: conformity to peers and romantic feelings
6-12: friends circles are same sex
teenage: rebel, cross-gender friendships, sexual identity, sexual relationships
the cells at the leading edge of the neural folds are
neural crest cells
in the reflex arc, interneurons are located in the ____
spinal cord
when dribbling a basketball, the hindbrain is responsible for _____
motor coordination and balance
Do the adrenal glands release testosterone and estrogen in both males and females?
yes, release both in both.
schizophrenia is associated with _____
high levels of dopamine
