M2 Subtopic 3

Question 1

These are the geological processes that originate within the Earth and result from the energy stored in its interior. These processes are responsible for shaping the Earth’s surface through the creation and modification of landforms

Answer 1

Endogenic Processes

Question 2

Endogenic Processes Include:

Answer 2

Metamorphism and Magma Generation and Intrusion
Tectonic Activity
Volcanism
Earthquakes
Isostasy

Question 3

the thermal energy that was generated during the formation and early evolution of the Earth.

Answer 3

Primordial Heat from Planetary Formation

Question 4

The process of planet formation involves the collision and aggregation of smaller bodies (planetesimals). The kinetic energy from these collisions was converted into heat

Answer 4

Accretion

Question 5

As the Earth formed, gravitational forces caused it to compress. The conversion of gravitational potential energy into thermal energy generated significant heat

Answer 5

Gravitational Compression

Question 6

The decay of short-lived radioactive isotopes (such as aluminum-26) during the early stages of Earth’s formation contributed to the initial heat

Answer 6

Radioactive Decay

Question 7

also known as gravitational contraction or self-compression, is the process by which a celestial body generates heat due to the conversion of gravitational potential energy into thermal energy

Answer 7

Gravitational Compression

Question 8

Generated by the movement of tectonic plates

Answer 8

Heat from Friction Due to Plate Movements

Question 9

One plate being forced under another generates significant friction and heat

Answer 9

Subduction zones

Question 10

Heat moves through solid materials like rocks; Heat moving from Earth’s hot core to the cooler mantle and crust

Answer 10

Conduction

Question 11

Heat transfer through the movement of semi-fluid rock in the mantle

Answer 11

Convection

Question 12

Localized Heat Sources: Areas of volcanic activity not directly associated with plate boundaries.

Answer 12

Hotspots

Question 13

Conditions Required for Magma Formation

Answer 13

Heat, Pressure, Volatiles

Question 14

For rocks to melt and form magma, temperatures must be high enough to overcome the bonds holding the minerals together.

Answer 14

Heat

Question 15

As it increases with depth, it raises the melting point of rocks. However, under certain conditions, a decrease can lead to melting.

Answer 15

Pressure

Question 16

Primarily water, and carbon dioxide, lower the melting point of rocks.
When they are are introduced into the mantle, they reduce the temperature at which rocks begin to melt, facilitating magma formation.

Answer 16

Volatiles

Question 17

Processes Leading to Magma Formation

Answer 17

Decompression Melting
Flux Melting
Heat-induced Melting

Question 18

Occurs when there is a decrease in pressure as mantle rocks ascend. This process is common at divergent plate boundaries, such as mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates move apart. As the pressure decreases, the mantle material rises and partially melts, forming basaltic magma

Answer 18

Decompression Melting

Question 19

Happens when volatiles like water and carbon dioxide are added to the mantle, reducing the melting temperature of the rocks

Answer 19

Flux Melting

Question 20

occurs when the temperature of the mantle or crust increases due to tectonic processes such as mantle plumes or hotspots

Answer 20

Heat-induced melting

Question 21

These chambers act as storage areas where magma can evolve before potentially leading to volcanic eruptions

Answer 21

Magma Chambers

Question 22

When magma cools and solidifies below the Earth’s surface, it forms intrusive igneous rocks

Answer 22

Intrusive Pathway

Question 23

When magma reaches the surface, it erupts through volcanic vents, forming extrusive igneous rocks like basalt, andesite, and rhyolite

Answer 23

Extrusive Pathways

Question 24

Formed by low-viscosity basaltic lava that flows easily and spreads widely

Answer 24

Shield Volcanoes

Question 25

Characterized by alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material, resulting from explosive and effusive eruptions.

Answer 25

Stratovolcanoes/composite

Question 26

Large, basin-shaped depressions formed when a volcano collapses following a massive eruption

Answer 26

Calderas

Question 27

As magma cools, early-forming minerals crystallize and settle out of the melt, removing specific elements and altering the composition of the remaining liquid. This process can create layered intrusions with distinct mineral bands

Answer 27

Fractional Crystallization

Question 28

Magma can incorporate surrounding rock material as it ascends, altering its composition. It can lead to the formation of hybrid magmas with mixed characteristics.

Answer 28

Assimilation

Question 29

When magmas from different sources or depths come into contact, they can mix, forming a new magma with intermediate properties. This process can produce complex igneous rock formations with varied textures and compositions

Answer 29

Magma Mixing

Question 30

Types of Metamorphism

Answer 30

Contact Metamorphism
Regional Metamorphism
Dynamic Metamorphism

Question 31

Caused by mechanical deformation along fault zones, leading to changes primarily due to pressure. This can create rocks like mylonite

Answer 31

Dynamic Metamorphism